Full text of "Amateur movie making"

See other formats

MAKING

mmm

m
mm

*-~yr «r * * * » V«F * > "W i

37417 NilesBlvd SjSTi 510-494-1411

Fremont. CA 94536 www.iiilesrilmnniseum.org

Scanned from the collections of
Niles Essanay Silent Film Museum

Coordinated by the
Media History Digital Library
www.mediahistoryproject.org

Funded by a donation from
Jeff Joseph

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2012 with funding from

Media History Digital Library

http://archive.org/details/amateurmoviemakiOOmcka

AMATEUR
MOVIE MAKING

HERBERT C. McKAY, A.R.RS.

Director of the New York Institute of Photography
Author of the Handbook of M. P. Photography, etc.

NEW YORK

FALK PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC.

10 WEST 33rd STREET

THE

NEW YORK INSTITUTE

PHOTOGRAPHY

Eighteen years of unremitting service
have given to the New York Institute of
Photography a most enviable reputation. To-
day it is recognized as the foremost school
of photography in the world. It offers un-
equalled facilities to those who come to its
studios for instruction and extends its edu-
cational advantages to students everywhere
through its practical home study courses.

Because the same high standards, the same
thoroughness and the same individual method
of instruction which characterize its resi-
dent classes have been applied to the teach-
ing of photography and cinematography by
the correspondence plan, the home study
courses of the Institute have achieved an
outstanding success.

The New York Institute of Photography
through affiliation with the Falk Publishing
Company and with the Institute Standard
Camera Company, is without doubt, the
greatest photographic organization the world
has ever known. It is obvious that such
unusual success is founded, must be founded,
upon unquestionable integrity and unfailing
service.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
BY STRATFORD PRESS, INC.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives the writer great pleasure to acknowledge the aid
given so freely in the preparation of this book by many
individuals and firms. The preparation of the book itself,
and the arrangement of the material was accomplished with
the help of the officials of the Amateur Cinema League,
Col. Roy W. Winton, Walter D. Kerst, J. B. Carrigan and
Arthur L. Gale. Mr. Stephen L. Sturz of Willoughby's,
Incorporated, and the firm of Herbert and Huesgen also
gave valuable information in this first step.

The manufacturers gave freely of their time during the
writing of the first part of the book, Charles Bass, Bell &
Howell, Mr. H. A. DeVry, The Eastman Kodak Company,
and Mr. A. F. Victor doing everything possible to further
the work.

The chapter on lenses and optical accessories was made
possible by the information supplied by the C. P. Goerz
American Optical Company, Hugo Meyer and Company,
Wollensak Optical Company and Carl Zeiss, Incorporated.

The experimental chapter is due to the cooperation of
Mr. W. A. Shoemaker, editor of the Cine Kodak News and
of Mr. E. M. Tobias of the DuPont-Pathe Film Manufac-
turing Corporation. The data on tinting and toning was
supplied by the Eastman Kodak Company.

Data on arc illumination was supplied by the M. J. Wohl
Company and by Mr. Leonard Westphalen. Mr. Burleigh
Brooks assisted in securing filter data, Mr. Ralph R. Eno
helped to prepare the title material, Miss Vera L. Standing
supplied the scenarios, while the material regarding Film-
slides was given by E. Leitz, Incorporated.

Many technical points, concerned with exposure, develop-
ment, printing, camera speed and projection would have
been impossible without the help of Mr. Joseph M. Bing of
the Drem Products Corporation, and Mr. R. P. Stinemann.

And last but not least, great credit is due the officials of
the New York Institute of Photography, who gave unfail-
ing assistance and who placed the entire facilities of their
splendid studios at the disposal of the writer during the
preparation of this work.

Herbert C. McKay.
v

FOREWORD

In recommending to the amateur cinematic world this
book on amateur movie making, I am not unaware of the
excellent volumes already given to the public that discuss
the world's newest avocation from a variety of viewpoints.
Mr. McKay has here, it seems to me, achieved a unity and
a fulness that are worthy of especial interest and com-
mendation.

This volume gives promise of a basic literature on per-
sonal motion picture making. Such books as this will ap-
pear, it is to be hoped, in increasing numbers. They will
appear because personal motion picture making has brought
cinematography into the lives of the people. We have
known, for nearly thirty years, that a new force has come
into the world and we have appraised its influence as we
appraise the effect of forces that are external to the great
mass of individual men and women. This kind of appraisal,
for example, was made when railroad transportation en-
tered the life of the world. Rapid transit was with us.
But a new evaluation was called forth when rapid transit
became personalized with the advent of the automobile.

Thus with the motion picture. Until it was liberated
for individual application we looked upon it as something
external, in the last analysis. Now it is not only ours as
a race but it is the individual possession of each of us. In
this last phase, cinematography becomes an affair of enor-
mous significance in the history of the world because the
world has achieved a new medium of individual and per-
sonal expression. Whatever a man may have to say, hence-
forward, he has another voice with which to say it.

All motion picture amateurs can thank Mr. McKay for
this comprehensive statement concerning personal cinema-
tography. He has written it from their own point of view.
He has done a practical thing, in that he has given them
information that is essential to their activities ; he has done
a philosophic thing in that he has made an evaluation of

vii

viii FOREWORD

cinematography as a world factor and as an artistic medium.

Personalized motion pictures are invading many new
fields. Industry has used professionally made movies for
a number of years for screen showings in theatres and to
fairly large groups; now, industry can carry its story to
individuals in their homes and their offices by means of
amateur projectors now, a thousand members of a great
industrial concern can record their personal contributions
in film by means of amateur cameras. Educators can make
their own films and can project them without limitation.
Scientists can make individual applications of motion pic-
ture photography. Personnel management and social direc-
tion can obtain accurate group and case histories through
this new recording and exhibiting medium.

There are probably close to one hundred and twenty-five
thousand motion picture amateurs in the world today. The
Amateur Cinema League has members and readers of its
magazines in thirty-three foreign countries. More than
thirty local groups in the United States and abroad are in-
tensifying their cinematic pleasure by united action. Ama-
teurs will multiply by thousands. The Amateur Cinema
League, as the organization of these thousands, feels an obli-
gation to encourage every forward step in cinematography.
Such a forward step is the publication of this volume.

Those of us in the Amateur Cinema League welcome
every intelligent and reasoned statement concerning our
activity. We were banded together in order that we might
cooperatively find the farther reaches of this new human
occupation. We appreciate motion pictures because we
make them. We know their potency.

An eighth art is at hand. A new medium of human ex-
pression is here. It must evolve for itself the discipline and
order, the restraint and selectivity, the unity and central-
ity that have been essential to the other arts. This can
come only from an understanding study of its fundamen-
tals and from a clear conception of its interrelation with
the rest of life. The beginning of that interrelation and
integration is foreshadowed in the pages that follow. Those
pages shed light on the present and throw a prophetic gleam
into the future.

ROY W. WINTON,

Managing Director,
Amateur Cinema League.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER pAGE

Introduction 1

Part One
THE AMATEUR CAMERAMAN

I. The Fascination of Amateur Movies . 7
II. Motion Photography and the Motion

Camera 14

III. Shooting the Amateur Film ... 39

IV. Exterior Lighting 80

V. Interior Lighting 94

VI. Lenses and Optical Accessories . . 128

VII. The Motion Picture Title .... 160

VIII. Trick Work with the Miniature Camera 190

IX. Editing the Home Film .... 213

X. Home Projection 235

XI. For the Experimenter 268

Part Two
THE AMATEUR PRODUCER

XII. The Art of Cinematography . . . 303

XIII. Amateur Films 310

XIV. Record Films 316

XV. Analytic and Instruction Record Films 326

XVI. Nature Study and Scientific Films . 335

XVII. The Amateur Production Company . 348

XVIII. The Scenario 356

XIX. Preparing to Shoot the Amateur Film 372

XX. Directing the Home Film .... 382

XXL The Production and Use of Filmslides 401

Part Three
APPENDIX

I. Formulae 408

II. Glossary 433

INTRODUCTION

Pictorial representation is so essential in human life that
we realize its existence only through its absence. Only when
deprived of our artistic expression do we realize the tre-
mendous part played by art in our everyday, humdrum,
practical lives. And, by the way, by art is meant not that
jargon of empty phrases, not that inane and insane daubing
which is known as the modern school, but those concrete
expressions of intangible emotions to which the soul of the
common man — and woman — responds.

The typical, the normal art of modern mankind is photo-
graphic. In keeping with our age the drudgery has been
removed from art. The lens gives us draughtsmanship, the
sun itself gives us our palette, and we are freed to give
expression to such divine sparks as we may have within us.
True, all photographs are not art, nor is all painting. A
beautifully made commercial photograph, however, is more
artistic than a huge signboard screaming, "They Satisfy"
in letters of blazing reds, yellows, greens and other colors
beloved of primitive peoples.

We have come to accept the photograph as commonplace,
but so great is the burden that it has taken upon itself, that
to remove from the world to-day all photographs, all photo-
graphic equipment and processes would be to wreck our
civilization. Our very printing presses would be silenced
for our finest typographical products are produced by photo-
graphic means.

Of all photographic processes, no single one has the im-
portance of the motion picture. You of course think in-
stantly of the vast "fillum" producing companies. That is,
of course, a tremendous industry, but it is after all only a
manufacturing industry to which the motion picture has
been adapted. The true value of the motion picture is poten-
tial rather than actual, and this potentiality may be materi-
alized by the amateur in the years immediately before us !

First of all we must learn that the motion picture is
primarily a photographic process, and has no inherent

2 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

relation to any form of dramatic art. We happen to have
developed that phase of the motion picture disproportion-
ately. The motion picture is, of itself, a new art, with little
in common with either draughting or drama. It is sufficient
unto itself.

Moreover, the motion picture readily lends itself to purely
utilitarian purposes. In fact one of the greatest attractions
of the animated photograph is the almost unlimited ver-
satility of the process. There is not a sport, not a business,
not a profession, neither vocation nor avocation to which
the motion picture cannot be profitably adapted. This fact
has been recognized to some slight degree, but, not until the
amateur has become so familiar with the work that its
attraction becomes one of utility rather than novelty, will
the true value of the motion picture be disclosed to the
world. Because this great responsibility rests with the
amateurs of to-day and to-morrow, the writer has ventured
to write seriously of a process which has long enough been
regarded as a novel toy for adults.

Most of you who read this will have a fair idea of the
development of the dramatic motion picture in this country,
but the short history of the amateur motion picture is not
so familiar. There have been amateurs working with motion
pictures since the discovery of the process and the invention
of the apparatus by C. Francis Jenkins, in the late Nineties.
However, the first real impetus was not given the amateur
movement until the introduction of the safety film, in which
Mr. A. F. Victor played an important part. Mr. Victor has
been associated with the development of the amateur work
ever since that time.

Then came the popularity thought by many to mark the
beginning of the amateur movement, which popularity was
due directly to the introduction of the 16 millimeter film.
Just why this is true is not known. The single item of
expense cannot be held responsible, for most present day
owners of miniature cameras could well afford to maintain
a standard size outfit, nor was it the factor of safety, for
we had safety film before the introduction of the miniature
equipment. It could not have been the reversal process
for the casual movie maker is not concerned with the process
by which his films are made usable. It may be that the
small size, light weight and motor drive gave these small
instruments their first popularity. It is safe to say, how-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 3

ever, that if the sixteen millimeter equipment could be
wiped out to-day that there would not be any great dim-
inution in the number of amateur cinematographers. To-
day, size is a matter of preference. Many amateurs are
using standard film for strictly private uses, while many
industrial firms are making sixteen millimeter positive for
commercial use.

December, 1922, marks the birth of amateur motion pic-
ture photography as a distinct field of amateur photography.
That month the photographic journal, Photo Era, inaugu-
rated the first regular amateur motion picture department
to be published in any technical magazine. This department
was started under the direction of the writer of this volume
and has continued until the present time. At its debut, other
photographic publishers openly ridiculed the idea, damning
the amateur motion picture as a passing fad, but at the pres-
ent time all of the major photographic publications of this
country have their amateur cine departments, two period-
icals have appeared which are devoted exclusively to this
work, and one of the greatest organizations ever formed for
the advancement of a pastime or of an art has come into
being as a direct result of the amateur cinema. I refer to
the Amateur Cinema League.

Not only is this true, but the amateur has already ren-
dered the greatest possible service to the cause of the motion
picture. Through years of technical development, the es-
thetic side of motion photography was yet unborn. The only
esthetic claims made were the doubtful ones made in the
name of the motion picture drama, which is after all, but a
substitute for the spoken drama. Only during the present
year has the esthetic of the motion picture been formulated.
For this we are indebted to no little degree to Colonel Roy
W. Winton, Managing Director of the Amateur Cinema
League who has said that the motion picture is "unlimited
motion dramatically applied !"

However, the development of any art is due to the efforts
of a small band of crusaders. In modern times such a band
find their efforts hopeless without the assistance of com-
mercialism, which in turn comes into being only by reason
of the demand of the man-in-the-street whose appreciation
of higher art is so often unconscious if existent at all.
Therefore, to the great army of men and women who have
found delight in making films of Junior, to the numberless

4 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

boys and girls who want to make movie records of delightful
vacations we are indebted for the present high place oc-
cupied by the amateur motion picture, and to them this
book is addressed, in the hope that it may make possible
films of Junior which will reveal his face in a more natural
manner, and films of the vacation in which something more
than a dim, scampering form is visible.

Herbert C. McKay

Part One
THE AMATEUR CAMERAMAN

CHAPTER ONE

THE FASCINATION OF MAKING YOUR OWN MOVIES

There is a fascination in making your own moving pic-
tures which can be found in no other sport or pastime. The
mere fact that we can capture such an elusive thing as a
passing motion, record it and keep it for future reference,
gives this work an irresistible appeal. For this reason the
popularity of amateur motion picture work is growing
rapidly and promises to rival the popularity of the radio
in the near future. This is no more than logical, as the eye-
path to the brain is far more highly developed than is the
ear-path.

We all have a penchant for the mysterious. Most beloved
of our childhood's books was the Arabian Night's Enter-
tainments and in later years many of us have found deep
pleasure in reading the literal translation of the Thousand
and One Nights. Even in this materialistic age we find that
the lure of magic is irresistible. But what conjuring ot
the seers of ancient times could compare with magic of
modern science? There is nothing in the old Black Art
which can compare with the marvels of modern magic —
only familiarity has blinded us to the wonder, the beauty
and the romance of this modern magic. That which was
the masterpiece of the feared magician is now duplicated
in our own homes and to us it is more or less commonplace.

The fascination of the motion picture, and of radio, is
that fascination which we, blase as we may wish to think
ourselves, find in the mysterious, the unknown ! Nor is this
attitude to be condemned, for the motion picture has anni-
hilated time, space and size. We can never fully appreciate
that process which enables us to sit at ease in our own
homes and see before us the actual battles fought by armies
on the other side of the earth. We can never fully appreci-

8 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

ate the modern magic which enables us to see again upon
the screen the pleasures which we enjoyed in past years.
Mohamet's mountain was an insignificant incident, for by
substituting an electric switch for a magician's wand we
bring to our own drawing room, any portion of the earth
we may desire.

One recalls Wells' fanciful story of the "Accelerator"
which is regarded as the height of imagination, yet we all
experience the same sensation when Ave see the slow motion
pictures, and we inject the "Accelerator" into plants
when we see the time condensation film which shows us a
plant growing from seed to full bloom in a minute or two.

Every child has envied Alice and the magic potions
which made her just the right size to enjoy her environ-
ment, but upon our magic screen we see the battle raging
between disease germs and the blood cells of our own bod-
ies and then we see an eclipse of the sun upon the same
screen. Thus companionably associated we see objects
which are measured only in fractional thousandths of an
inch and those whose dimensions necessitate the consider-
ation of thousands upon thousands of miles. Vivid indeed
must be the imagination which can describe to us any scene
or event which cannot be shown through the medium of
our motion picture films.

The human race is devoted to pictorial representation.
Whether this be crude or perfect, the demand for it is felt
in every quarter of our globe. Yet, this pictorial art is
conventional and artificial. Even the still photograph is
more symbolic than exact. We have separated the life of
our world into two great classes, animate and inanimate.
AATe are creatures of motion, only in death do we relinquish
movement. Motion is an integral part of our life, and any
representation of life which is without motion is artificial
and inadequate. A carefully posed photograph appears un-
natural. This is the true reason that so many portraits are
unnatural. It is difficult for the best portrait artist to pose
his subject in a manner that has a natural appearance; on
the other hand, when we try to snap objects in motion the
result is even worse. Perhaps there is no more graceful
motion known to mankind than that of a carefnllv trained

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 9

esthetic dancer, vet an instantaneous exposure gives us a
photograph which is at best grotesque. The motion photo-
graph shows us our friends and relatives as we know them
in real life. It changes the grotesque posture of the dancer
to beautiful, poetic motion. Is it any wonder then, that the
moving picture has already become an indispensable part
of modern life, in the home as well as elsewhere?

Even with these advantages, the motion picture could
not have become truly popular without its present day
simplification. Due to the research of the manufacturers,
we have now available apparatus and supplies which en-
able us to make our own motion films by merely sighting
the camera and pressing the release. No small part of this
development has been due to the perfection of the reversal
process which changes the photographic negative to a posi-
tive, rendering the process more simple and less expensive
than would otherwise be the case.

The cost of the process, even now, is by far the greatest
objection to its use, but careful consideration shows this
to be an academic objection only. We purchase a one hun-
dred foot roll of film which has space for four thousand
separate exposures. This we purchase for less than four
dollars, or less than one-tenth of one cent per picture. If
we also pay for developing at the same time we pay fifty
percent more, or about three-twentieths of a cent per pic-
ture, and by means of a device now on the market we can
actually make paper prints of any one of these four thou-
sand tiny negatives, in a size quite large enough for mount-
ing in the usual album. So negative for negative the
amateur motion picture is the least expensive photographic
process we have.

It may be objected that the comparison is unfair.
Then, to make the fairest possible comparison, we will
consider the actual enjoyment afforded by both proc-
esses, in terms of dollars and cents.

The sizes of photographs made by amateurs range
from the vest pocket size to post card size. A fair
average is the 314 x 4*4 size, or the quarter plate as it
is known in England. Let us imagine ourselves looking
through an album showing the vacation of last year as
depicted in six dozen photographs. We will spend

10 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

approximately ten seconds looking at each photograph
or twelve minutes to look at the entire lot. This is
generous allowance of time, but to give every advantage
to the still side of the question we shall add one-third
and make it sixteen minutes for the seventy-two photo-
graphs.

Now let us tabulate the cost of these six dozen photo-
graphs.

6 dozen films @ 90c per dozen $5.40

Developing 12 rolls of film @ 15c 1.80

Printing 72 positives @ 6c each 4.32

Album for prints 1.50

Total $13.02

The average cost, then, of ordinary snap-shots
amounts to approximately thirteen dollars for sixteen
minutes actual use. Of course this period of sixteen
minutes is repeated over and over, but as this is true
for both still and motion pictures we can disregard
this point.

The owner of the motion picture camera will use
twenty-four dollars worth of film in making a sufficient
length to have a screen time of sixteen minutes. Of this
about twelve minutes will be actual action,u the re-
mainder being titles. This means that he will have
roughly thirty-six scenes. If he wants to do so he can
easily secure two still enlargements from each scene,
or seventy-two paper prints, and in addition he has a
sixteen minute reel of motion film.

By doubling the cost the owner of the motion picture
camera can secure the same period of enjoyment from
his motion film that the still cameraman gets from his
prints, and in addition the motion picture cameraman
can have the same number of still pictures.

Thus we see that in reality the motion picture costs
only twice as much as the still pictures, while giving
both still and motion pictures. In actual practice the
difference is far less, for we have to consider the still
films lost through careless operation, a loss which is
very rare in the case of motion pictures.

But after all, the question of expense is of minor
importance. Who is there who would not prefer a four-
minute action film to a hundred still photographs? The

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

amateur still photograph, as a record especially, is usu-
ally grotesque and acceptable to us only by virtue of
being an accepted convention. We have seen the amateur
still camera start as a toy, a novelty, used only for
making snap-shots of people; and we have seen it ad-
vance until at the present time it is used as a tool by
the most capable and serious of artists.

The Dremette Movie E'nlarger. This little instrument makes it possible to secure
enlargements up to post card size from single frames of either 16 m/m or standard

motion picture film.

We cannot ignore the artistic possibilities of any form
of pictorial representation. Note that the word "possibil-
ities" is used. Too many of us are prone to think that any
kind of picture is a work of art. True, art deals with repro-
ductions, more or less true to nature, of familiar objects
and scenes. But study will reveal the fact that in every
true work of art, the actual subject of the work is inciden-
tal, it is symbolical. The true appeal of the work of art is
to our emotions. Hence we may say that art is the expres-
sion in tangible form of human emotion.

Almost twenty-three hundred years ago Aristotle desig-
nated the arts as architecture, sculpture, painting, danc-
ing, drama, poetry and music. These basic arts have re-
mained unchanged through the centuries. Of course, draw-
ing, etching and similar processes have been added to
painting, and poetry now includes literature in general,
but basically the world of art has until recently been di-
vided among these seven arts. Now we have the eighth art,

12 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

the first art to be given to the world in twenty centuries
and more, and the art which will eventually become the
greatest of all — the motion picture.

We have been handicapped in pictorial artistic expres-
sion. We have been forced to substitute suggestive symbol-
ism for the most dynamic feature of any art — motion. Now
however, we can make use of actual motion, and through
its proper use we can produce works of art which will
without doubt surpass any masterpiece the world has ever
seen. But please note this carefully — This masterpiece will
not be a mongrel child of photography and drama! The
drama involved will be that of pure motion, and not a the-
atrical scene enacted before the camera. It will be, as
Colonel Winton of the Amateur Cinema League, says, "Un-
limited motion dramatically applied!"

The photo-play as we have it today, while of incalculable
value through its enrichment of national recreation, is not
nor can ever be pure art ! The only conception of the pres-
ent day photo-play is in regard to its value as a drama,
and in this motion photography has no part except that
of recording medium. There is little motion picture art in-
volved. The artistic motion picture will have little more
in common with theatrical drama than has the masterpiece
of painting.

So much for the consideration of the motion picture and
its place in art. This has been given merely to stimulate a
new line of thought. The writer is perfectly well aware
that practically every reader of this book intends to pre-
pare a scenario and produce a photo-playlet. In this you
have his entire sympathy, for even if not pure art, this
work is very fascinating and provides an endless fund of
clean, wholesome amusement which returns tangible re-
wards in the form of the film which may be kept and en-
joyed for a long time. In this respect amateur motion
picture photography stands alone. It provides two-fold
pleasure, — that of production and that of projection and
viewing the completed film.

There is no reason for anyone to hesitate in purchasing
an amateur motion picture camera, for it is absolutely
more simple and easy to make good motion pictures than

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 13

it is to make good still pictures. With the average good
quality still camera there are eight shutter stops and eight
automatic shutter speeds, making possible sixty-four ex-
posure combinations without regarding time exposures. In
the average amateur motion picture camera there is one
fixed shutter speed, and usually only six or seven stops,
making at most seven exposure factors, which will give
adequate control for all subjects within range of the cam-
era's capability. In other ways the cameras have been so
simplified that it is quite the usual thing for the average
amateur to make a success of his very first film, a thing
almost unheard of in still photography,

CHAPTER TWO

MOTION PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE MOTION CAMERA

Before going directly into the consideration of the cam-
eras and other apparatus used in motion photography, let
us consider the subject in general. There are several in-
tensely interesting points concerning the reproduction of
motion with which many amateurs are not at all familiar.

There is little doubt that motion pictures were known
to the ancients. There are several passages in the classics
which clearly refer to either motion pictures or animated
figures and the supposition is that the reference is to the
former as we know that the principle of the persistence of
vision and its application to a mechanism for the reproduc-
tion of motion were known to Aristotle.

The logical beginning is the cause of the illusion of mo-
tion and then the mechanism of that illusion ; for we must
remember that moving pictures do not exist. The motion
picture gives us an illusion of motion which is pure illusion
and which depends for its existence upon our defective
vision.

Persistence of Vision. — Without going into a dis-
cussion of the physiological reasons, we know that the
human eye continues to see any object for an appreci-
able length of time after that object has disappeared,
and this period has no relation to the speed of light
travel. It is a purely physiological reaction. The classic
experiment of the spark in the dark demonstrates this
easily. For the benefit of those who are not familiar
with this experiment, it may be explained that a spark
or other glowing light when whirled in the dark ap-
pears, not as a travelling point but as an arc of a circle.
If the whirling is made rapid enough, this arc will ex-
tend into a full circle. As we know that the point can
be in but one place at a time we are forced to acknowl-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 15

edge that the eye continues to see this point after it has
left its old position, but it sees the new position in-
stantly, therefore we have the phenomenon known as
persistence of vision.

History of Cinematography. — At some period in the
dim ages of the past, some toga clad philosopher studying
in a somber cell imagined the effect of substituting one
figure for another so quickly that the persistence of vision
would cover the interval of change. After tedious experi-
ment and repeated trials this was accomplished and the
philosopher had the keen joy of seeing figures simulating
the motion of human beings.

Centuries later when the savage hordes from Asia rolled
over Europe, practically extinguishing the last spark of
civilization, this knowledge was imprisoned in mouldy
scrolls rotting away in neglected cells, but as civilization
again gained impetus these ancient scrolls were unearthed
and philosophy once more engaged the attention of men.

Who stumbled upon these records of the experiments re-
lating to the persistence of vision? We do not know, but
we do know that in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies the little "Wheels of Life" were well known, and
that many children, and adults too, of noble birth were
amused by these ingenious toys. Therefore we know that
motion pictures as such are almost as old as civilization,
and also that they were and would still be of only inciden-
tal importance were it not for the merging of the photo-
graphic process with this principle.

The Nineteenth Century saw the birth and development
of the photographic process. To join this with persistence
of vision required some process whereby a series of similar
but progressively changing photographs could be exposed
from a single viewpoint, and a second device whereby this
series could be exhibited. This was a problem compara-
tively simple, or would have been had it not been for one
condition which was imposed by natural law. The complete
cycle of showing the photograph and changing it to the
next must be done within a time not exceeding one-tenth
to one-twelfth of one second, for such is the duration of
persistence of vision !

16 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

This problem was attacked by many men, but the produc-
tion of the first photographic motion picture, the invention
of the first mechanism to take and reproduce motion pic-
tures in the modern method and the first public exhibition
of both forms of motion photographs belong to Americans.
Edward Muy bridge made the first motion photograph (s)
upon glass plates and exhibited them at the Chicago
World's Fair. His discovery was to a certain extent acci-
dental as he made the plates in an endeavor to solve cer-
tain questions concerning the motions of a horse when
racing, and it was made as a result of a commission from
certain racing stable owners to make a series of photo-
graphs to settle a stable argument.

The physical limitations imposed by the glass plate led
to the invention of a flexible support for the emulsion.
Experimenters in England and France were helping, but
many of them worked with cheaper supports. It was in
the United States that practical celluloid films were first
made available for motion pictures on a commercial basis,
by George Eastman. It was held that Eev. Hannibal Good-
win's American patent on celluloid films was a basic one
only. Shortly after, in the early nineties intensive develop-
ment took place in apparatus for using this film for taking
and producing motion pictures, Thomas A. Edison and
C. Francis Jenkins being among the most active pioneers.

From this point the development of the motion picture
was normal, but due to its great cost both as to apparatus
and maintenance it never proved truly popular as a form of
amateur photography. While each individual photograph
upon standard film represents only about 2/3 of one cent,
completely finished, it must be remembered that sixteen of
these photographs are exhibited each second, and the cost
per second is about ten cents. In short the standard reel
of one thousand feet represents a minimum outlay of about
one hundred dollars.

The apparatus for taking and projection was also ex-
pensive. Why? There must be two protective casings for
the film. The film must be fed steadily forward at the rate
of one foot per second. Midway in this forward travel the
motion is changed from uniform to intermittent and back

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 17

to uniform. The intermittent motion holds the film abso-
lutely motionless for approximately 1/32 of a second while
it is being exposed to the light. During the 1/32 of a second
during which all light is excluded from the camera, the
film is advanced a distance equivalent to the width of one
frame or individual photograph. This is % inch in stand-
ard film and 1/40 foot in substandard. This distance of
forward travel must be exact or a screen dance would re-
sult. After passing this the film again moves forward at
a uniform rate and is finally wound up upon a receiving
spool. It is evident that a mechanism which will act so
rapidly and with the necessary accuracy must necessarily
be expensive.

Thus the status of the standard film as used for theat-
rical projection is fixed, nor is there any indication that
there will be a change in any of the basic mechanical
points. There are minor improvements brought out from
time to time and these are to be expected, but basically
the standard motion picture apparatus will consist of a
mechanism which will automatically expose successively
a series of film areas. In doing this it is necessary that the
film be stopped while the exposure is being made, and at
the same time the film must be fed into the mechanism
which alternately moves it forward and stops it. Finally
the film must be removed from this mechanism. Any mech-
anical arrangement which will do this will make a motion
picture.

As this is the .extent of the limitation imposed, many
variations of the ribbon are used, and have been used in
the past to photographically simulate motion. Most of us
have seen the "flip" books, small booklets of pictures
which, when the leaves are allowed to slip rapidly from
under the thumb, give an illusion of motion. The device is
still used in certain advertising work. Then there were the
zoetropes, and similar motion picture toys, but none of
them embraced principles which could be practically ap-
plied to the making and projection of motion pictures by
the photographic process.

Non-Ribbon Films. — One of the first departures from
the orthodox ribbon film was the disc film. This is a large

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

(.Courtesy Spiro Film Corp.)
The Spirograph projector which makes use of a disc rather than a ribbon of celluloid
for supporting the individual frames of the motion picture.

disc upon which the tiny individual photographs are ar-
ranged spirally. This method has been brought out peri-
odically, and even now there is a firm which is preparing
this form of motion picture for the home. In the present

(Courtesy Spiro Film Corp.)
A "Spirograph" film recorded upon a disc of celluloid.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 19

form no camera is offered, only the projectors and films or
discs being offered for sale. They are quite satisfactory,
and by some are preferred to the ribbon film. Naturally
there is no rewinding to be done. However, this form of
film is not subject to edition, titling and other alteration
so often necessary, so that this form of apparatus is not as
popular as the usual form.

Another company made an equipment using broad bands
of film, which travelled around the interior of the camera,
the lens dropping slightly with each exposure so that when
the band was exposed the result was a band of film per-
haps two feet long, ten or twelve inches wide and joined
to form an endless band upon which the individual pic-
tures are arranged in a continuous descending spiral. This
apparatus was offered complete with both camera and pro-
jector. This apparatus did not prove popular either be-
cause it excluded the most essential part of after treatment
of the film, the editing and title insertion. These are things
which the amateur likes to do for himself.

Paper discs for use in conjunction with phonograph
records were introduced, but never placed upon a success-
ful commercial basis. These "records" were projected by
reflection as in the case of the common "postcard" pro-
jector. This requires a tremendous incident light, due to
the great enlargement necessary in projection.

Experiment after experiment was made trying to popu-
larize the motion photographic process for the amateur,
but for several years there was no marked success. The mov-
ette, a small camera using a special 17% millimeter film
was fairly successful, but did not live. About the same time
the Actograph was introduced. This was one of the most
perfect small cameras ever built and was in fact superior
to some present day models in many ways, as it made use
of the professional outside magazines, had the reverse film
travel and other professional features. This was also made
for the 17% millimeter film. It was later changed to take
16 millimeter film but it has not yet been placed upon the
market.

28 Millimeter Film. — Perhaps the first commercially
successful amateur film to be brought out was the 28

20 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

millimeter gauge Pathescope and Victor Safety film. These
films were made less than standard width, not for the sake
of economy, but to insure that only "safety" or slow burn-
ing film could be used in the projectors provided. The
Pathescope film had the usual four perforations on one side
of each frame but along the opposite edge of the film there
was a single perforation placed exactly opposite the frame
line. This was used to provide automatic framing. These
films were used principally as "library" films, although
several cameras were sold for use with this film.

16 Millimeter Film. — Time after time, efforts were
made to bring out a successful amateur film, but these met
with only questionable success until not many years ago
the Eastman Company announced the 16 millimeter am-
ateur film and the accompanying apparatus. The aggres-
sive advertising campaign of the Eastman Company
placed the new 16 millimeter film upon a firm basis. Al-
most immediately after this the Pathe Company of Paris
brought out their amateur film which, while it had the
same frequency, namely forty to the foot, was consider-
ably narrower, namely 9% millimeters. The difference in
gauge was due to the difference in perforation, the Pathe
film lacking the wide perforation bands on the sides of the
actual picture space.

This substandard film gained favor slowly, and it must
have failed miserably had it not had the support of such
financially strong organizations as Eastman and Bell &
Howell who actually fought financial losses in the produc-
tion of their apparatus. To-day, amateur cinematography
has been proven. It is accepted as a necessary part of Amer-
ican life. Naturally new equipment is jumping into the
fore, but the leading instruments are those made by the
first three companies who made apparatus when the first
16 millimeter film was introduced, these are Bell & Howell,
Eastman and Victor. All three are old established firms.
Bell & Howell made professional motion picture cameras,
and established the first motion picture mechanical stand-
ards. Eastman is the world's pre-eminent manufacturer of
photographic supplies while Victor is known wherever
lantern slides and lantern slide projections are used. To-

>'&

<u be

E.S

C8 -73

j5 re

22 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

day these companies offer apparatus which is without
doubt infinitely superior to that offered by most competi-
tors here and abroad for the use of 16 millimeter film.

There is little choice among these 16 millimeter and the
Pathe dy2 millimeter cameras, except as individual ad-
vantages appeal to the prospective purchaser. In the fol-
lowing descriptions we shall give brief specifications and
descriptions bringing out the salient points of each instru-
ment. Thus the reader, if he does not own a motion cam-
era, may select that instrument which offers advantages
which he believes will best solve the peculiar problems
which confront him.

The Motion Picture Camera. — In order to select a
motion picture camera we must have a general idea as
to the requirements of any motion picture camera. In
the first place we have the box, this is the framework
inside which the mechanism operates. This box must
be durable to withstand wear, it must be rugged to pre-
vent injury from shocks and jars, it must be light in
weight so that it may be carried without fatigue, it
must be attractive in appearance and finally it must be
light proof. If all of these considerations are fulfilled
the remaining details are of no great moment.

The camera must have a film advancing mechanism.
This consists of an upper spindle for the film spool,
an upper sprocket which pulls the film from the upper
spool, an intermittent mechanism which advances the
film past the aperture, one frame at a time, an aperture
plate, which is a polished metal plate against which the
film is pressed during exposure. The aperture which is
cut in this aperture plate is just the size of the frame
or individual picture. The pressure plate presses the
film against the aperture plate. The pressure plate is
a part of the gate which opens to allow the film to be
placed in the film race.

Beneath or past the gate is a second or lower sprocket
which draws the film from the gate and finally the
take-up mechanism which winds the exposed film upon
the empty lower spool.

It may be remarked that in most modern cameras the
"Upper" and "Lower" sprockets are either two sprock-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 23

ets mounted side by side upon a single shaft or both are
. combined in one master sprocket the upper face of
which serves as the upper sprocket with the lower face
acting as the lower sprocket. These two arrangements
provide exact synchronism between the two feeds.

In front of the aperture, the shutter rotates. In am-
ateur cameras this shutter is a metal disc from which
a certain sector has been cut. The angular measurement
of this sector varies from 135 to 220 degrees. This
rotating disc alternately obstructs the light and per-
mits its passage.

In order to function, the camera must have a lens.
This may be mounted in a fixed focus mount or a focus-
sing mount. In the former, the lens does not have to be
adjusted for different distances, but does not give such
fine results as does the latter which is accurately set for
each different subject. It may be remarked that the
focussing model can be set for use as a fixed focus
model, thereby combining the advantages of both in one
instrument. This will be discussed further in the chap-
ter devoted to lenses and in the Appendix.

In addition to the parts mentioned there are certain
accessories such as the film meter which shows the
amount of film exposed, the level which indicates the
camera position with regard to the horizon, stop motion
or single exposure devices, slow motion or high speed
attachments, variable speed controls, title writers,
filters, vignetters, mask boxes, prismatic focussing de-
vices, focussing microscopes, and others without end.
Some of these are built in, integral with the camera,
others are added to the instrument by the owner. In
addition, the separate accessories such as case, ex-
posure meter, monotone filter, range finder and so forth
are quite essential. Each will be discussed in its proper
place, and instructions for use given.

In this country the amateur purchasing a camera for
use with substandard film will choose from these models :
Victor, Pathex, DeVry, Cine-Kodak, or Bell & Howell
(Filmo). There have been hints of even other amateur mo-
tion picture cameras coming and the author has had the
opportunity of seeing at least three inventors' models of
new cameras which worked very well indeed, but at this

24 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

time none of these three has yet made its appearance upon
the market.

{Courtesy Pat hex Inc.)
The Pathex Camera. The smallest automatic motion picture camera available.

Pathex Camera. — As the Pathex is the smallest, both in
film size and camera size, we will start the specific descrip-
tions with it. The Pathex camera is known all over the
World outside of the United States as the Pathe Baby.
The film has a frequency identical with that of the 16
millimeter film, namely forty to the foot, so that the two
films are the same foot for foot, but the Pathex frame has
a width of only 8% millimeters as compared with the 10y2
of the 16 millimeter gauge. The maximum capacity of the
camera is thirty feet, or the equivalent of 75 feet of stand-
ard film. Due to the instant loading feature, this limited
capacity is not objectionable.

The camera has no sprockets, the cam driven claw pro-
viding the film movement from the upper magazine cham-
ber and the take-up providing the film motion from the
claw to the lower magazine chamber. The film is sold in
a double compartment magazine with a short section of
the film exposed. This magazine is dropped into place in-
side the camera, the door closed and the camera is ready
for operation.

The perforations in the film are located in the center of
the ribbon and between the frames, thus giving an abso-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 25

lutely central pull with a single claw. This is a feature of
this type of camera.

PATHEX CAMERA

Construction — All metal, morocco covered, nickeled trim.
Size — With spring motor attached 3 x 3% x 4% inches.

Without motor the size is 1% x 3% x 4.
Weight — Complete with motor, 3 lb., 6 oz.
Capacity — 30 feet Pathex substandard, 9% millimeter film

in Pathex magazine.
Finder — Iconographic showing exact field.
Lens — 20 millimeter, f 3.5 cine-anastigmat, fixed focus.

f 1.9 also available.
Shutter — 180 degree rotary disc.

Intermittent — Pathe harmonic cam, actuating single cen-
tral claw.
Take-up — Positive, enclosed type.
Meter — By hundreds of frames up to 1200.
Motor — Morocco covered to match camera. Attachable
and detachable at will, allowing use of hand crank.
Eelease may be latched in operating position allow-
ing operator to enter picture.
Case — Heavy leather for camera, motor and 4 extra maga-
zines of film.
Tripod — None required, but any good metal tripod will

answer.
Film Development — First cost of film includes reversal
and return to owner.
All of the other cameras mentioned in this chapter are
for use with the sixteen millimeter substandard film. This
film has gained recognition as the standard film for ama-
teur work in this country, and practically all new cameras
introduced are designed for use with it.

The sixteen millimeter film is distinctly an Eastman in-
troduction as it was designed and manufactured when
practically all other firms were trying to make the 17%
millimeter the standard size for amateur use. The 17%
millimeter is the film known in Europe as "half-normal"
and is just one-half the width of standard film. This film

26 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

is at times a piece of standard film cut in two, lengthwise,
with the usual standard perforations running down one
side, while in other cases the film has been doubly per-
forated as in the case of the modern 16 millimeter.

(.Courtesy East»ian Kodak Co.)
Cine Kodak Model B with f 6.5 lens equipment. This is one of the most popular of

the Cine Kodaks.

When the 16 millimeter film was introduced, the Cine-
Kodak was introduced. This camera was a marvelously
made instrument, and was almost a professional camera
in miniature. It was hand driven, and a tripod was sup-
plied. About the same time an automatic camera was
introduced which was of smaller size and the public reac-
tion was toward the "easier" model. The Cine-Kodak was
then supplied with an electric motor, but the Cine-Kodak
did not really prove popular until the introduction of the
present model B. This model has swept the country and
has become as commonplace as the still Kodaks. The hand
cranked model "A" is still sold for the use of the special-
ist and serious cinematographer and in his hands proves
an instrument of precision.

cine-kodak model "a". — This is among the finest cam-
eras ever manufactured for amateur motion pictures. It is
even more suited to research and scientific work. The cam-
era is of rectangular design, and hand cranked. It has a
direct focussing tube through the camera and a reflecting
finder for using the camera at low level. As it is a special
purpose camera it is equipped with special lenses. One, the
f 1.9, is made for use under adverse lighting conditions,

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

the other, an f 4.5, 3-inch, for medium power telephoto
work. A special finder lens is supplied for use with the

{Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
Cine Kodak Model A. This is the first successful 16 m/m camera produced and is
still a great favorite with many advanced amateurs.

3 -inch lens. By means of special attachments which screw
to the side of the camera the gear ratio is changed for
single exposure work and by means of a similar attach-

nterior of the Cine Kodak Model "A'

ment the mechanism is speeded up to four times normal,
giving slow-motion pictures. These attachments will ap-
peal to the trick worker.

28 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

A special tripod is supplied for use with the Cine-Kodak
"A." This is built somewhat like the familiar Crown
tripods, but it has a metal head which incorporates a fric-
tion tilt and panorama.- Due to its light weight this tripod
is finding favor with owners of practically all types of
motion picture cameras except the professional models.

CINE-KODAK MODEL "a"

Size — 4% x 8 x 8% inches.

Weight — 7y± pounds.

Construction — Aluminum.

Capacity — 100 lineal feet of 16 mm. film, equivalent to 250

feet standard gauge film.
Lens — Kodak Anastigmat f 1.9 interchangeable with 3-

inch f 4.5.
Finders — Reflecting, for low-level work and telescopic

through body of camera for ordinary tripod work.

Adjustable for field.
Shutter — Fixed, rotary disc.

Intermittent — Special double claw Kodak movement.
Take-up — Positive, inside.
Meter — Dial at rear registers feet exposed.
Focus — By dial and pointer at rear of camera.
Movement — Hand driven, single picture, normal speed,

superspeed.

CINE-KODAK MODEL "b"

Construction — Metal covered with morocco leather; f 1.9
model in ostrich leather at $75.00 additional.

Size — About 3 x 5% x 81/! inches.

Weight — 5 pounds, loaded.

Capacity — 100 feet 16 millimeter film, equivalent to 250
feet standard film.

Finder — Two provided, one direct (Newtonian) and one
brilliant reflecting type.

Lens— Optional, f 6.5; f 3.5; f 1.9.

Shutter — Standard, fixed, rotary.

Intermittent — Special Kodak claw movement.

Take-up — Positive inside.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 29

Meter — Registers in feet.

Focus — Universal or by spiral mount.

Motor — Built-in with winding crank permanently at-
tached. Release may be locked in operating position
when desired.

(Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
Cine Kodak Model B with f 3.5 lens equipment.

In point of age, the Bell & Howell Filmo and the Cine-
Kodak "A" are the leaders. The Filmo was introduced
shortly after the introduction of the 16 millimeter film
and since its introduction, no great change has been made
in the basic design. The general appearance is the same
as it was when first introduced. Improvements have been
along the line of making the camera more flexible by the
use of interchangeable lenses and other accessories.

THE FILMO CAMERA

Construction — All metal finished in black, crystal enamel.

Size — About 3x6x8, irregular shape.

Weight — 4% pounds.

Capacity — 100 lineal, 250 equivalent feet 16 millimeter

film.
Finder — Special Bell & Howell spy-glass type.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Lens — Optional from 20 millimeter to six inch and from

f 1.9 down in speed.
Shutter — Rotary disc, opening 216 degrees in one model,

180 degrees in others.
Intermittent — Special single claw movement.
Take-up — Positive, inside.
Meter — Registers in feet.
Focus — By scale with Bell & Howell special micrometer

focussing mounts, visually by focussing magnifier or

visually in camera by reflex focusser.
Motor — Built-in, spring power, detachable winding key.

(Courtesy Bell & Howell)
The Filmo camera, the first automatic camera made for use with 16 m/m film.

The Filmo is built in four models. One of these will
operate at either 8 or 16 exposures per second and is the
standard model. The double speed model will operate at

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 31

either 16 or 32 frames per second, giving a slight degree
of slow motion, the three speed model will operate at 12,
16 or 24 frames per second, giving some leeway in the
matter of exposure and speed control while the snperspeed
model operates only at 128 frames per second for extreme
slow motion.

One of the three manufacturers who made 16 millimeter
cameras coincidently with the introduction of the 16 milli-
meter film was the Victor Animatograph Company. This
company made a 24 millimeter model when the Pathescope
was popular and had been making projection apparatus
for years prior to this time.

The original Victor camera was a small, rectangular box
with a fixed focus lens, a revolving disc diaphragm, and of
the simplest construction, yet it delivered the goods, and
some of the best substandard film the writer has ever seen
was a product of one of these little boxes. The manufac-
turer, however, an earnest photographic experimenter, was
not satisfied. He started designing a neAV camera and now
this camera has been placed upon the market. It is made
in irregular shape, the shape conforming to the shape of
the enclosed mechanism, which seems to be the accepted
shape for American made motion picture cameras, for
there are at least two others of shape similar to the Victor
and the Filmo now being developed.

This camera has many unique features, some of which
have not been before combined in any camera, either stand-
ard or substandard. The motor is detachable, and the
camera may be used with either the motor drive or the
hand crank. The motor spring is of the double type, giving
instant, uniform, smooth response. The action starts and
stops at full speed, yet with an accelerated motion on the
first frame which makes possible this full speed start with-
out injury to the film, even when using superspeed for slow
motion.

The finder may be instantly set to indicate the field for
any distance beyond three feet, yet no masks, lenses
or other attachments are used for this purpose. A level
seen through the finder aids in making truly horizontal
pictures. An exposure meter is built into the camera it-

32 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

self and, last but not least, the film meter, which does not
require setting, indicates the amount of unused film left
in the camera.

The lens thread is standard, making possible the use of
any standard lenses and Goerz effects. The film is self-
aligning in the film race, making threading very easy and
simple. Threading takes about thirty seconds.

The starting button may be rotated to control the speed
of operation. An arrow engraved on its top indicates the
speed of operation, which is half normal, normal and
superspeed. The fourth position of this button locks the
mechanism, preventing accidental exposure of the film in
the camera. It is unusual for one camera to combine half,
normal and superspeed without using any accessories to
accomplish this purpose.

The Victor Camera. Model No. 3.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE VICTOR MODEL NO. 3

Construction — All metal, finished in crystal black enamel.
Size — Over all projections 314 x 6 x S inches.
Weight — 4% pounds.

Capacity — 100 lineal, 250 equivalent feet of 16 millimeter
film.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 33

Finder — Adjustable for all distances from three feet to
infinity. Level visible in finder.

Lens — Optional, f 3.5 or f 1.8, both 25 millimeter focus
supplied with camera. Lenses from 1 to 6 inches
focal length and from f 1.5 down in speed may be used.

Shutter — Kotary disc type, 220 degree sector.

Intermittent — Special Victor type which will not tear
perforations.

Take-up — Positive, built in.

Drive — Automatic by motor or manually with crank in
same model.

Movements — Forward, by motor at half speed, normal
speed or superspeed. By hand at any desired speed.
Also single frame for animation and stop motion
effects.

Exposure Meter — Built in.

Footage Meter — Fully automatic, does not have to be set.
Indicated amount of unused film in camera. Cor-
rect reading with either 100 or 50 foot spool.

Focussing — By scale on lens mounts, visually with reflex
focusser or sliding base.

Motor — Double spring type providing smooth, even pull.
Governor keeps speed at uniform rate. Starts and
stops at full speed. Quiet in operation. Cased in
detachable housing. Fully controlled by finger release
button. Release may be locked in operating position.
Turning release gives 3 speeds and lock.

The Victor is built in one universal model for all types
of work, including single exposure, stop motion, animation,
time-condensation, titles, normal and slow motion.

The latest addition to the line of sixteen millimeter
cameras available is the DeVry sixteen millimeter model.

For years the DeVry Corporation manufactured the
world's leading projector, and recently they introduced an
automatic, standard gauge motion picture camera. This
camera, of regular shape and beautifully finished, made a
very attractive appearance. Trial proved it to be the equal*
of any motion picture camera ever produced and its many
Unique features quickly made it a universal favorite. So

34 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

great was the success of this camera that the manufac-
turers were practically forced to produce a model for the
sixteen millimeter film.

In accordance with DeVry principles this camera was
not announced until the experimental models had been
pronounced perfect. Now, however, almost coincidentally,
with the publication of this book, the announcements are
made public, and it is evident that the camera has been
worth waiting for. It incorporates exclusive DeVry fea-
tures and also those which are recognized as being the
most modern.

In appearance the camera resembles the standard gauge
model. It has the same rectangular shape, the same
leather-like, imperishable finish and the same trim attrac-
tiveness throughout.

This camera is made in two models, one a plain model
for straight work, equipped with a one-inch f 3.5 anastig-
mat lens. The other model is equipped with an arrange-
ment whereby it may be used for either normal or slow
motion pictures, and a one-inch lens of high aperture. It
appears that the modern camera must be capable of pro-
ducing slow motion if it is to appeal, for the interest in this
work is growing by leaps and bounds. There is a fascina-
tion in slow motion which the average amateur cannot
resist. Due to the use of the DeVry double, "balanced"
spring motor, the camera runs without vibration even at
superspeed. The standard DeVry camera has proven the
value of DeVry spring motors.

These cameras are, of course, arranged so that any de-
sired cine lens may be substituted for the one supplied.
This includes the range from one to six-inch focus and
from f 1.5 down in speed. Finally the camera is made
throughout in keeping with usual DeVry quality, a point
which is fully appreciated by everyone familiar with mo-
tion picture equipment.

SPECIFICATIONS OF THE DE VRY CAMERA

Construction — Metal throughout, finished in imitation
leather grain.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 35

Size— 2% x 5% x 7%.

Weight — 4 pounds.

Capacity — 100 lineal, 250 equivalent feet of 16 mm. film.

Finder — Two supplied — Telescopic spy-glass and direct

vision types.
Lens — Any from 20 mm. to 6-inch focus, from f 1.5 down

in speed; 25 mm. f 3.5 standard.
Shutter — Rotary disc, 180 degree opening.
Intermittent — Cam and shuttle, special.
Take-up — Positive, inside.
Meter — Registers exposed film footage.
Focus — By micrometer focussing mount.

The DeVry automatic motion picture camera. This is the latest addition to the
family of 16 m/m cameras.

Motor — DeVry double spring, counterbalanced type for
driving camera at all three speeds without any vibra-
tion.
Operation — Automatic, spring drive at half-normal, nor-
mal and superspeed.

(There are several cameras using sixteen millimeter
film which find wide favor in Europe, such as the Ox-
ford, Cine-Geyer, Cine-Nizo, and others as well as those
such as the Ernemann which use the 17% millimeter
film.

As these are not widely used in this country, detailed
specifications and descriptions will be omitted.)

We are inclined to think of the motion camera as being
merely a camera with the motion added. This is not at
nil true. The motion camera is an instrument for record-

36 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

ing motion. Motion requires an appreciable interval of
time for its occurrence and similarly for its recording. In
still photography we are not at all concerned with time.
The still photograph is made almost instantaneously and
therefore the process and the result both have nothing of
the time dimension. On the other hand, the motion cam-
era records motion and therefore change. The time dimen-
sion is the most important in motion photography. Thus,
instead of a mere camera, let us regard the motion camera
as a scientific light recording instrument.

As such, we will instantly realize that fact that in order
to properly record the variety of changes which the time
element introduces, it will often be necessary to change
the camera itself. This is done in one of two ways, either
making adjustments of the camera itself, or by the use
of accessories.

The modern motion camera is usually strictly limited
in its output if no accessories are used. In this respect it
may be compared with the scientist's microscope. The
judicious selection of the accessories for any camera will
actually treble or quadruple its value to the owner and
user.

The actual photographic accessories are few in number.
There is the choice among lenses of course, as will be dis-
cussed later, the very necessary range finder, the exposure
meter which will be discussed in the chapter dealing with
exposure, and such items as cases and other protective
appliances whose purpose is too obvious for detailed dis-
cussion here.

A tripod is a useful accessory for any motion camera.
The camera can be operated without the tripod in most
cases, but whenever circumstances make it necessary the
tripod should be used to give the desired steadiness to the
picture. Fortunately the modern automatic camera makes
it possible for us to use a light weight tripod, but even so
the stand selected should not be too flimsy. A good, steady
tripod will often repay its cost many times over in in-
creased film quality. However, the tripod is not really a
necessity with the modern automatic camera.

The still photograph which excites our admiration as it

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

hangs upon exhibition bears but little resemblance to the
original print. The still photograph is amenable to a tre-
mendous amount of manipulation, but the motion film
comes from the developing tank in almost the same condi-
tion it will keep throughout its useful life. Our manipula-
tion, our retouching, our additions and suppressions must
be made before the film is exposed. For this purpose Ave
make use of that most valuable accessory, the "Effect
Set." This consists of an iris diaphragm set about two

The Triax tripod, one of the lightest rigid tripods

and may be set up in a very few seconds

(Courtesy Burleigh Brooks)
e, it is automatic in action

inches in front of the lens, a long funnel-shaped tube
of metal in front of this iris, terminating in a rectangular
opening slotted to take cardboard slides or "masks." The
iris gives us a space control in circling in and out, the fun-
nel gives us an excellent sunshade resulting in a clear,
brilliant, snappy film, and the mask box allows us to use
chiffon-edged masks for softening the margins of the pic-
tures, and masks for double and multiple exposure, as will
be explained later.

While Ave may depend absolutely upon the range finder
and the calibrated lens mount to give us a proper focus,
we cannot expect the finder, which is placed above or at
one side of the lens, to give us a field of view which exactly
coincides Avith the lens field. On the other hand, the beauty
of our "framing" or of our composition depends upon the
exact location of the component parts of the composition

38 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

within the border of the frame. To secure this exact orien-
tation, we make use of the sliding base which places a
focussing telescope in the position to be occupied later by
the camera lens system, or by the use of the reflex focus-
sing device. The latter is one of the most valuable acces-
sories yet placed in the hands of the amateur.

Then there are many times when a film is desired of an
object very close to the camera, so that we may secure a
tremendously enlarged image upon the screen. To do this
we have to increase the lens extension. With the reflex
focussing device mentioned above the lens extension may
be increased considerably so that objects only a few inches
in front of the lens may be photographed successfully,
giving us screen images which are hundreds of times life
size.

In addition to these, new accessories are added con-
stantly, and, as has been said, there are accessories in the
special fields, lenses and filters as optical accessories, ac-
cessories giving better projection, accessories which are
vitally necessary in edition and titling and accessories for
interior cinematography. In fact the status of the amateur
cinematographer, and quite often the quality of his pro-
ductions, may be estimated by the accessories which he
uses.

Finally there are the home-made accessories. The use
of a home-made accessory does not indicate a penurious
nature, but rather an inventive one which designs accesso-
ries which have not yet been made commercially available.
Practically every true experimentally inclined amateur
will make use of at least one home-made accessory in his
photography, cutting, developing or projection.

With the camera selected and the necessary accessories
at hand, we are ready to shoot our first film.

CHAPTER THREE

SHOOTING THE AMATEUR FILM

Each manufacturer includes with his camera and pro-
jector specific operating directions for that particular in-
strument. The owner can do no better than to follow these
instructions. They will tell him everything he needs to
know in order to load the camera, to make straight record
shots of simple scenes, and to remove the film from the
camera after exposure. Were this the extent of the useful-
ness of the motion picture camera there would be no use
for this book. However, this is but the A-B-C, the natural
scale, one might say, of true motion pictures. In order to
secure the fullest satisfaction from the use of the camera,
one must understand the instrument and be able to make
the utmost of its possibilities. The ownership of a violin
does not make a violinist nor does the ownership of the
camera make a successful amateur cinematographer in the
fullest sense of the word. One can learn to play chords
upon a ukulele, after a fashion, in ten minutes. One can
learn to expose motion film in a similar length of time.
But the one is not a concert musician nor the other a suc-
cessful amateur. Both have elementary knowledge which
with a little study and application will bring real success,
but the cinematographer has a far easier path to travel
than has the musician.

Exposure. — The one vital factor in all photographic
procedure is exposure. Before we can do very much in this
work we must understand a few simple facts about light,
both as to quantity and quality.

We all know that light will cause certain colors to
fade. Light also acts in other ways and upon other
materials. One of the most rapid actions of light is that
used in photography where if light is allowed to fall

40 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

upon a prepared film for only such a short time as, in
some instances, one one-thousandth of a second or less,
that prepared film will be changed to such an extent
that we secure from it a photographic reproduction, or
a photograph.

Light has two photographic qualities, the intensity,
or as we might say in popular language, the candle-
power, and it has color. Color has nothing to do with
photography, directly, but it is a visual index of the
approximate photographic power of the light which
is called the "actinic value.,, For example red and
yellow do not affect the sensitive film to any extent,
therefore it is difficult to make photographs of sunsets
in which these colors predominate, and for the same
reason the developing rooms are lighted with red lights.
Thus, a very strong red light would not suffice for mak-
ing a photographic exposure, while a comparatively
dim white or blue light would serve. The reaction of
the film to light is in an advancing scale which corre-
sponds to the familiar rainbow colors ; red is the weak-
est and violet the strongest color, speaking photograph-
ically. Thus red photographs as black while violet
photographs white.

In photography we have three exposure factors. The
first is the sensitivity of the film to light. That is, the
length of time which that particular film must be exposed
to the light in order to darken it. The second factor is the
size of the hole in the lens diaphragm through which the
light passes and the third one is the length of time during
which the light is allowed to act. So a light of certain
intensity (of a certain actinic value) is allowed to pass
through a certain sized opening for a certain length of
time to properly expose a certain sensitive film. This is
the complication with which the pioneer photographer was
confronted ! How different it is to-day with the amateur
motion picture photographer! He varies the size of the
lens opening to correspond with the intensity of the light
used and shoots. Simple, isn't it? How does he know the
proper size of lens opening to use? He makes use of some
kind of exposure meter. This accessory is so important
that it deserves a paragraph or so all to itself.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 41

Exposure Meters. — The exposure meter, so-called, may
be a set of reference tables, a calculator constructed some-
thing like a slide-rule or it may be an actual meter which
measures the intensity of the light falling from the sky or
the intensity of the light reflected from the object which is
to be photographed. It is obvious that both reference
tables and calculating slide rules will give only average
results, but as most of these calculators have been designed
after a study of hundreds of test exposures, it may be
assumed that the results represent the mean values of all
of these tests. So nearly identical is the light intensity
under certain given conditions that these calculators are
quite satisfactory and thousands are in everyday use.
They require a little time to operate and are not as con-
venient as some other kinds of meter, but their low cost
makes them very popular.

The Harvey Motion Picture Meter is typical of the cal-
culators. In this meter we have two sliding scales. We
start by setting a pointer to indicate the correct geographi-
cal location and time of year. Setting this pointer changes
the position of one scale. We then set a second scale adja-
cent to the first. The second scale carries a list of light
conditions. The adjacent edge of the first scale carries the
frequency factor, such as normal, one-half normal speed
and so forth. It also carries indices indicating the height
of the sun above the horizon, for use late in the evening
or early in the morning. When these two settings have
been made the meter is turned over. Here we find a series
of "windows" arranged in horizontal and vertical rows.
Each entire vertical row represents one diaphragm (lens)
stop, ranging from f 1.9 to f 32. The horizontal rows indi-
cate the subject, each row being given to one typical group
of subjects. There are 10 diaphragm stops and eight
classes of subject giving us a range of eighty readings.
When the slides have been set we find that most of these
windows are blank, but in some of them we see small dark
spots which represent, respectively, sectors of discs equal
to 180 degrees, 135 degrees and 90 degrees, the three most
common settings for adjustable shutters. If we find that
for a beach scene the 180 degree sector appears under 16,

42 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

we know that we should use stop f 16 with a 180 degree
shutter when photographing a beach scene. As meters
give full readings the 180 degree sector can be used in
determining the stop to be used with 170 degree fixed shut-
ters. As practically all fixed shutters are either 180, 170
or 135 degrees, this meter is quite practical for use with
fixed shutter cameras. The fact that this calculator has re-
ceived the endorsement of many well-known studio cine-
matogra pliers indicates that it is quite satisfactory.

Another type of calculator is the Rexo meter, made pri-
marily for use with the substandard cameras. This meter
was designed by Mr. Syril Dusenbery of San Francisco,
and has found great favor in that it is both simple and
reliable.

In trying to overcome the shortcomings of the calculator
type, several meters have been brought out which measure
the intensity of the light Avhich falls upon the subject.
Here we again run into some trouble. The light which
falls from the sky is not an index of the exposure required,
else we would give the same exposure to every type of sub-
ject under the same light conditions. Even the light which
actually falls upon the subject is not a sure index. How-
ever, when we know such intensity, our problem of expos-
ure calculation is tremendously simplified. With the Mil-
ner light gauge, we point the instrument at the brightest
source of light which falls upon the subject. For subjects
in bright sunlight we point the gauge directly at the sun,
and for subjects in the shade we point it at the most bril-
liant portion of the sky which is visible from the position
occupied by the object. When we do this a small opening
covered with a brownish yellow film becomes brightened to
a certain extent. We noAV turn a disc until a second open-
ing just beneath the first assumes approximately the same
color. When this is done we look at the lower side of the
scale. Here we find five subject types, ranging from bril-
liantly lighted to dark subjects. Above the type which
represents the subject before us Ave find the proper lens
stop indicated.

Another meter which is used to measure the photo-
graphic poAver of the light which falls upon the subject is

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 43

the Watkins Meter, first popularized in the "Bee" type.
This instrument does not look unlike a watch. Beneath
the crystal is a movable scale in which is a small round
opening. One-half of this opening is covered with a gray-
tinted shield, the other half is open. Beneath this scale is
placed a disc of sensitive paper which can be exposed por-
tion by portion by slightly turning the bottom of the case.
In use this meter is placed in the position occupied by the
subject or in a position which is correspondingly lighted.
A fresh portion of the paper is brought under the opening
where it will begin to turn dark. Seconds are counted

Filmo actinometer for indicating: proper exposure.

until the paper has the same general depth of tone shown
in the permanent gray shield tint. This is known as the
actinometer reading. Upon the left side of the rim of the
case we see a series of numbers with the word "ACT."
This means actinometer, and this series of numbers corre-
spond to the number of seconds required to darken the
sensitive paper. Upon the left side of the dial, adjacent to
the actinometer scale, we see a column headed "Film."
The numbers in this column refer to the speed of the film
used and are an expression of a system of film speed testing
known as the Hurter and Driffield method. The figures
are commonly known as the H&D values. A small dot is
placed opposite 250 indicating that the ordinary cine film
has a speed of 250 H&D.

Suppose that it took 150 seconds to darken the sensitive
paper. We set the 250 film reading midway between 130

44 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

and 180. Now if we refer to the right side of the dial we
see the usual diaphragm stops from f 1.9 to f 32, while on
the right side of the rim of the case we see some figures
marked "EXP." These figures refer to the exposure fre-
quency, the actual values indicating the number of frames
exposed per second. (Remember that normal speed is six-
teen frames per second.) We find 16 on this scale and
opposite it on the dial we see f 1.9. This indicates that we
can only make this exposure with an f 1.9 lens. However,
if we have a 2.5 or 2.7 lens we can run the camera at half
speed and still get the film, for we see 2.5 opposite 8, which
means 8 frames per second. This meter has proven very
popular, but with it we are again measuring the light
which falls upon the subject. At first glance this might
appear to be the logical procedure, but the fallacy will be
apparent upon consideration.

We have seen that light falling upon the sensitive film
causes the photographic action to take place. The fact that
this light, which does so affect the film, is reflected from
the subject makes possible the formation of the image of
the subject. Therefore, it is evident that the light with
which we are working is solely the light reflected from
those objects whose images will appear in the completed
photograph. Now if we have light of equal intensity fall-
ing upon a piece of white cloth and upon black velvet, we
have a great difference in the amount of reflected light.
This makes the difference in the appearances of the cloths.
Objects which are photographed are usually composed of
a great^ number of shades of dark and light, and the gen-
eral tone makes up a light, medium or dark object. It is
obvious that an exposure calculated for the reflected rather
than for the incident light will be the more accurate. For
measuring the reflected light we use the extinction meter.

The extinction meters consist, usually, of round cases in
which a disc revolves. This disc is quite transparent at
one place and then gradually darkens until it becomes
practically opaque. This opaque portion joins the trans-
parent portion. This tinted disc or "optical wedge" is
usually tinted blue. Now, upon looking through a peep
hole provided for the purpose we see the scene before us

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

in monochrome. This helps us in judging the lighting, as
the monochrome blue shows us the scene just as it will
appear in black and white upon the screen, something
which cannot be judged by the unaided eye until after long
practice.

As we look at the subject through this meter, we turn
the disc until all the detail has disappeared and we can
see only the masses of the subject. If we now refer to the
scales printed upon the meter we will see opposite the one-
thirty-fifth shutter speed the proper diaphragm stop to be
used.

We now encounter a curious fact. Hardly two people
see alike. Vision varies greatly, but it would appear that

OUTER (BLACK) TUBE

lllllllllllllllilllll|lllllllliljl:

llllllllll

^r j, -

.INNER NICKEL TUBE
THE WINDOW

"iris RING
[pointer

.1st or stop ring
2nd or time ring

3RD OR SPEED RING

(Courtesy Drem Products Co., Inc.)
The Cinophot exposure meter, showing the various parts.

the difference is not one of sensitivity as it is of perception
of detail. As long as no pathological condition exists, one
individual will see a light at just about the same instant
another will, but when it comes to distinguishing detail,
one individual will see full detail before others can see any.
So, in using the extinction meter, it was found that the
readings made by various people were totally different.
This, in turn, meant that each user had to become accus-

46 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

tomed to his individual meter. He would find by trial and
error that appearance which gave him the best results
and this he called the point of extinction.

This condition, in turn, led to the invention of the Drem
Exposure Meters, of which the Cinophot is the universal
motion picture meter. These meters are independent of
all personal idiosyncrasy, and time after time the writer
has seen tests made wherein several persons, many times
those unfamiliar with the instrument, secure readings
within one point of all the rest. Also under rigid tests in
New York studios it has been proven to be absolutely ac-
curate.

The meter itself is a short tube with an eyecup which
to some extent resembles a pocket telescope. In use these
steps are followed :

1. Loosen the set screw.

2. Pull out inner nickel tube at diaphragm collar, ex
posing a window in the nickel tube, just above the knurled
iris ring. In this window appears the selective exposure
time 1/25, 1/5, 4 or 30."

3. Turn the diaphragm ring to the left, counter-clock-
wise, in the direction of the arrow on the nickel tube. Each
turn of one-quarter circle snaps one of the four basic obser-
vation figures, namely, 1/25, 1/5, 4 or 30, behind the time
window, and places the same figure automatically in line of
vision within the instrument. Assume that 1/5 is thus
placed.

4. Turn diaphragm collar back to the right, clock-wise,
about one-quarter circle, until meeting with a checking
resistance. This opens the diaphragm fully. Do not force
beyond that.

5. Remove eye glasses, if any. Place eye cup to the eye,
excluding extraneous light. Close or shield the other eye.
Point the instrument towards a bright light. The number
which you placed at the time-window of the nickel tube
will now be discerned, although more or less blurred, as a
translucent figure within the instrument.

6. Telescope the nickel tube in or out, in a longitudinal
sense, without removing the instrument from the eye, until
the figure (in our example: 1/5) is sharply focnssed.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 47

7. Now tighten the set screw without undue force. This
will keep the instrument permanently at the focus corre-
sponding to your individual eyesight.

The case will accommodate the meter at any extension.

HOW TO MEASURE EXPOSURE

It is presumed that the "Adjustment for Individual Eye-
sight" has been duly performed.

8. Selection of Basic Observation Time: By revolv-
ing the diaphragm collar in the direction of the arrow on
the nickel tube, the figure which corresponds to the specific
light condition involved is placed behind the tube window
and simultaneously within the instrument.

Sunlight, bright diffused light, very brilliant
artificial illumination 1/25

Diffused daylight, overcast sky, shadow side,
brilliant artificial studio light 1/5

Under heavy foliage, twilight, light interiors 4

Deep ravines, dense forest, night scenes, dark
interiors 30

Always select the smallest usable time figure. Return
ring to widest aperture of the iris diaphragm.

9. Place the instrument to the eye, and aim it towards
the object which is to be photographed. Point the instru-
ment towards that part which should be expediently and
most carefully measured, usually the shadow details. For
titles, small objects or animation, approach with the in-
strument as close as possible without obscuring the object.
The meter will indicate the best possible balanced average
exposure over its range of field.

10. If, at greatest aperture of the iris diaphragm, the
selected figure should not be visible at all, or just barely
visible, then the next larger figure must be snapped in
position by a turn to the left — this will automatically cor-
rect any error in the selection of the basic observation time.
But do not employ any larger figure than necessary.

11. Close the diaphragm, which should make the figure
invisible. If the figure remains visible even at smallest

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

aperture, then the next faster time number must be in-
serted, for example, 1/25 instead of 1/5. Then reopen
slowly and very carefully until the figure just becomes
plainly discernible and legible again, and not more.

This is the important and deciding point of the opera-
tion : The turning of the diaphragm ring must cease at the
very instant when the reappearing figure just becomes
visible, recognizable, emerging from the surrounding dark-
ness. Would you not know which figure is to appear, you
should be just able to read it within the instrument, and
you are not to continue turning, thereby opening up wider,
until the figure is restored to initial, fullest possible bright-
ness.

12. Release the knurled diaphragm collar, loAver the
instrument and observe the position of the pointer on the
beveled edge. It will point to a scale on the first ring,
adjacent to the iris, which carries the conventional dia-
phragm marking in "f system."

(Courtesy Drem Products Corporation)
The Cinophot scales showing how the calculating: rings are set. Note that 1/25 is the
fraction shown in the window and that this same fraction enclosed in a diamond shaped
enclosure is set opposite 5.6 the f. value indicated upon the exposure ring in this
example. The black arrow head indicating 1/35 second, the normal exposure of most
fixed shutter cameras is found opposite f4.5 the correct setting. In Victor and Filmo
cameras the opening indicated by 1/25, i.e., f 5.6 is used as these cameras have ex-
tremely wide shutter openings.

13. Turn the second ring, which bears the time figures,
until the mark bearing the number observed in the instru-
ment coincides with the mark of the aperture ("stop f")

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 49

to which the pointer on the diaphragm collar directed. All
other exposures and apertures will then be lined up oppo-
site each other on the first and second ring. "The four
available basic observation-time figures are distinguished
on the second or time ring by a diamond for easier place-
ment.

Never point to the source of light, but only to the objects
which you intend to photograph. If necessary, make read-
ings from close proximity, bringing the important section
alone into the range of the instrument, neglecting the
unimportant and incidental background, etc., although it
may appear in the picture. Under brilliant white or bluish
light, arc light, Kliegl Lights, Cooper Hewitt Light, time
and make the exposure as you would in daylight. The
actinic value of these lights is well within the practical
latitude of the exposure-meter.

The exposure-meters are not designed to permit the mak-
ing of two separate determinations upon one and the same
object with the instrument changed from one setting to the
next, for instance, from the 1/5 setting to the 4 setting.
Between the different settings allowance has to be made
for the accommodation of the eye to varying intensities of
light. If a measurement can be made with the instrument
in the 1/25 position, the reading must be taken at the 1/25
setting and not at the 1/5 setting. The instrument should
not be altered to the next larger time figure unless it re-
mains invisible or becomes visible only at the full aperture
of the diaphragm, i. e., at the f 4.5 or 4.

Movie cameras have a conventionally fixed speed. The
normal and usual frequency of exposure is 16 frames per
second, both for recording and projection. The average
opening in the circular shutter-disc is about a half sector
or 180 degrees. Each of the 16 individual frames receives,
therefore, an exposure of about 1/32 second. For practical
Work and more convenient comparison with the conven-
tional stop numbers, this may be rounded out to 1/35
second.

The time fraction 1/35 on the second ring is distin-
guished by a very prominent black arrowhead.

Set the iris diaphragm on the motion picture camera to

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

correspond with the same stop number to which the arrow-
head of 1/35 directs on the first or stop ring of the Cino-
phot.

This is, then, the proper lens aperture for correct expos-
ure at normal frequency of 16 frames per second and on
regular cine film.

It is entirely practical to use the Cinophot in this man-
ner for all usual movie camera models. The theoretical
exposure speed may be from 1/25 to 1/50, yet the Cinophot
marking at 1/35 is a practicable average and the exposure
difference is easily absorbed by the latitude of the film
emulsion.

For more fastidious discrimination, the following ap-
plies :

OPEN

SHUTTER
SECTOR :

EXPOSURE

AT 16 FRAMES

PER SEC:

LIKE
CAMERA
MODEL :

APPLY LENS
APERTURE

CORRE-
SPONDING
TO:

Over 200
degrees

About 180
degrees

1/20 to 1/30
Sec.

1/30 to 1/40
Sec.

Victor and
Filmo Cameras

Cine Kodak,

Filmo Three

Speed, De Vry

1/25
1/35

This shows that, for instance, users of Filmo and Victor
cameras may read the Cinophot with 1/25 in position with-
in the instrument, and set their lens diaphragm directly
to the stop number indicated by the Cinophot iris dia-
phragm pointer. Such users need not manipulate the
second ring, unless poorer illumination causes them to
use 1/5, or even 4, within the Cinophot.

Cine-Kodak, DeVry or Filmo Three Speed camera users
will place the second ring as instructed and read their
lens aperture below the prominent arrowhead mark of
1/35.

For use with cameras permitting a variable angle of the
open shutter sector, refer to the third or sector ring of the
Cinophot.

Below each group of degrees appears the corresponding

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 51

exposure time; for instance, an opening of from 50 to 60
degrees allows to each of the normal 16 frames per second
an exposure of 1/100 second.

Note on this third ring the time corresponding to the
angle used. The correct lens aperture for this angle will
be found on the first ring, opposite this same time number,

Most amateur cameras have, however, fixed shutter sec-
tors.

Example : Suppose that the number 1/5 has been seen
through the Cinophot and that at the proper moment the
pointer has pointed to f 11.3. Place 1/5 on the second
ring opposite 11.3 on the silvered part of the first or stop
ring.

It is now required, let us suppose, to use an angle of 60
degrees. On the third or sector ring "50 to 60 degrees" is
associated with the number 1/100.

The correct lens aperture for the angle of 60 degrees,
then, will be found on the first ring, opposite 1/100 of the
second ring — namely, f 2.8, as illustrated in figure 4.

VARIABLE FREQUENCY

Many motion picture cameras permit a lesser or greater
frequency than the normal speed of 16 frames per second.

A smaller number of frames per second causes a propor-
tionately longer exposure and requires, therefore, a smaller
lens aperture. If the speed is reduced to 8 frames per sec-
ond, each one receives twice the normal exposure.

A greater number of frames per second causes shorter
exposure and requires a greater lens aperture. If the
speed is accelerated to 32 frames per second, each receives
only half the normal exposure.

Such alterations of the speed are best allowed for on the
first or stop ring.

The following table shows the relation to normal fre-
quency, which is 16 frames or exposures per second ; "In-
crease" refers to larger lens diaphragm opening (numeri-
cally smaller stop number) and "Decrease" refers to
smaller opening (numerically larger stop number) :

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

SPEED TABLE

No. of
Exp. per
Second

Relative
Exposure

Lens Aperture
Stop Points

Generally

Cine Kodak
Eyemo

Filmo
and

Victor

Filmo
Three
Speed

DeVry

Example

Increase

Decrease

Use Stop Corresponding to:

1/16

1/10

—

/16

iy2

—

1/2

1/25

—

1/25

between 11.3
and 16

—

1/35

1/25

1/35

/11.3

3/4

1/2

—

1/50

—

1/50

between 11.3
and 8

1/2

—

1/75

—

1/4

—

1/150

—

/5.6

128

1/8

—

1/300

—

(Courtesy Drem Products Corp.)

New exposure meters are being brought out constantly,
some of them are good, others last but a season and are
discarded because of unreliability. However, the meters
which have been discussed here are representative of the
various types and each one described can be thoroughly
recommended.

Camera Angle. — Having determined the exposure to be
given, the next thing to do is to determine the camera
angle. This is really nothing more than composing the
stationary elements of the scene in their most pleasing
relations to each other. When this is done, the action may
be arranged to correspond with this set-up. As the action
is under the director's control it need not enter too greatly
into the actual camera angle, although of course the gen-
eral locale must be suited to the action. Of far more im-
portance in connection with the set-up is the direction of
the light. We have seen that the character of the light
exerts a tremendous influence upon the exposure, and now
we find that the direction from which it falls upon the
subject is of paramount importance.

This point, however, goes into the consideration of exte-
rior lighting, which subject we shall have to leave for a
later chapter.

Tripod. — In setting up the camera for amateur photo-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 53

plays and family records it is better to use a tripod. This
is done not only to secure more steadiness in the film, but
it keeps the camera in a fixed position which will give a
better screen effect in photoplays and it enables the cine-
matographer to leave his camera for short periods with
the assurance that he can return to it and resume exposure
without having changed the camera angle. It is admitted
by the most expert operators of automatic cameras that,
while the camera can be held in the hands when necessary,
more satisfactory screen results will be secured when the
tripod is used. The more inexpert the operator the truer
this statement will be.

When setting up, whether with a tripod or without, be
sure that the camera is level. Remember that a camera
held at an angle will give a picture upon the screen which
"runs downhill" in one direction or the other, and as we
do not wish to give our friends reason to question our
sobriety, it is essential that we secure a levelled picture by
holding the camera level at the time of exposure.

(Courtesy Burleigh Brooks)
Various types of adjustable tripod heads are in use. Those which have the lock placed
to give rigidity such as the Triax head here illustrated, are recommended.

The motion picture camera, with one or two exceptions
in the strictly professional models, have no rising and
falling fronts. Perhaps the reason for this is that the
motion picture camera reached its present high stage of
development as a result of the demand for a camera which
would best serve to record photo-plays. As such, its use
would be principally that of photographing people and
their activities. In such cases, the distortion due to tip-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

ping the camera would usually pass unnoticed. However,
as the amateur cameras are designed upon the same basic
principles as the professional models, we must remember
that we have no rising front and so we must be very care-
ful in tipping the camera.

The camera must be held vertically. The picture at the left shows the result when
the camera is held properly while the one at the right shows the effect of pointing

the camera upward.

Tilt. — The camera may be tipped or tilted when it is
kept perfectly level sidewise, and when no rectangular
objects of strong interest are included in the picture. Thus
we can shoot from a window, pointing the camera down-
ward at an angle at children playing in the yard outside
and below the window's level. On the contrary, if we take
a shot of a skyscraper, tilting the camera to secure the top
of the building, we shall get the impression that the build-
ing is falling over backward. There is one exception to
this, however. If we make a straight shot at the entrance
or other ground level portion of the building, and then
panoram vertically to finally show the top of the building,
we get a violent distortion as the top of the building comes
into view, but this distortion is quite acceptable to the eye,
for, due to the motion, we get the impression that we are
looking upward and the convergence of the lines of the
building correspond closely to the natural perspective as
seen by the eye. If you cannot get far enough away from
a building to get all of it you want by holding the camera

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 55

level, move nearer to it and panoram up the side, you will
get a more satisfactory effect than by tipping the camera
and securing a motionless picture of the subject.

There are, on the contrary, many times when very inter-
esting effects may be secured by the use of an unusual
camera angle, such as making shots of boats from bridges,
shots looking down into excavations and similar work.

Focussing. — When the camera is set in the angle it is to
occupy during the actual exposure, the lens must be set to
the proper focus. This is something which is evidently
confusing to almost every amateur, and to some profes-
sionals as well. In the first place, by focussing we mean
that we adjust the distance between the lens and the film
to that point where the image of the subject being photo-
graphed is sharply defined upon the film.

There is but one such distance for any given corre-
sponding distance of the subject from the lens. Like-
wise when a lens is sharply focussed, there is nothing
else sharply focussed except those objects which lie at
just the same distance from the lens as the object
focussed upon. Personal experience indicates that the
foregoing statement is not true, so an explanation is
necessary. When the lens is sharply focussed upon any
given object, other objects nearer to the camera and
farther away are focussed with sufficient sharpness to
give an acceptably sharp image. This latitude gained
through compromise is known as the depth of focus of
the lens. It is known to opticians that the shorter the
focal length of any lens, the greater the relative depth
of focus. Therefore we find that with the extremely
short focus lenses used in amateur cinematography,
this tolerance is so great that objects from ten or fif-
teen feet to infinity are rendered with passable sharp-
ness. For this reason, the lens can be permanently set
in the camera to give this effect. We then have what
is known as a lens of fixed or universal focus.

The universal focus lens is an ordinary lens focussed in
such a manner as to take the fullest advantage of the
tolerance just described. Such a lens equipment is always
inferior to that having an adjustable focussing device.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

The fixed focus lens is very convenient for rapid work,
as the time usually consumed in focussing is saved, but
any focussing lens may be used as a fixed focus lens
by setting the focussing mount to the hyperfocal distance
of the lens and stop used. (For hyperfocal reference
tables, see appendix.)

Hyperfocal Distance. — For ordinary amateur work
where we may tolerate a circle of confusion of 0.05
millimeter or 1/500 inch, the distance known as the
hyperfocal distance may be taken as being fifteen feet.
Then everything from seven and one-half feet on will
be sharp to a satisfactory degree. This calculation is
based upon a 25 millimeter lens working at f 3.5.

For those who are scientifically inclined, an explana-
tion of this calculation may be of interest. Those who
are not may skip this bit of technical discussion and go
on to more practical aspects of the work.

Circle of Confusion. — First of all we must under-
stand the circle of confusion. The light which we use

.B M Y

Here we have a lens through which two beams of light are passing. The beam shown
in solid lines is emitted from an object at an infinitely great distance from the lens
while the broken lines show the path of a beam from a nearby object. Behind the
lens we have three planes. The first plane XY is the plane of principal focus in
which the beam from the distant object comes to a focus. Plane MN is the plane in
which the film lies while plane AB is the plane in which the beam from the nearby
object comes to a focus. A point in the nearby object is represented by a circle (GH)
in the plane XY, and by the circle (EF) in plane MN. It is reproduced as a true
point only in plane AB. The beam from the distant object comes to a focus and
forms a point only in plane XY. It then diverges and forms circle (OP) upon plane
MN. If the circle EF and OP are not larger than 1/500 of one inch we will have
satisfactory definition for all objects both near and distant. If they are much larger
than this we will get a soft or even a "fuzzy" effect upon the screen. These circles,
EF, GH and OP are known as "Circles of Confusion."

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 57

in photography enters through the entire aperture of
the lens, each ray completely filling the lens. This ray
is then condensed by the lens in a long point, like the
point of a pencil. At the extreme point we find that this
ray affects the film in just one point. But if we move
the film backward or forward past this point, we find
that this ray which bears the image of a point, affects
the film over a small circle whose diameter depends
upon the distance of the film from the place where the
ray came to a point of "focus." When this happens in
actual work we get a blurred picture because each point
in the picture is represented as a small circle, and as
these circles all overlap, we get the hazy confusion
common in the out of focus picture. These are known
as circles of confusion.

The blurred image behind the sharp one shows graphically the result of circles of
confusion which are too large.

It is evident that these circles of confusion are not
objectionable until they have passed a definite limit in
size. This size depends upon the purpose for which the
photograph is intended. For contact prints these circles
may reach a diameter of .01 inch. For negatives to be
enlarged in the usual manner, we have a tolerance of
.004 inch, but for motion picture work we should keep
these circles within a limit of .002 of one inch or ap-
proximately .05 millimeter.

It is understood then that when we have established
the point of correct focus, we may move the film or
the lens, in either direction, depending upon which is
movable, such a distance that the circles of confusion
in the images of those objects which we wish to repro-
duce, shall not exceed .05 millimeter.

Just how is this distance determined, and what effect

58 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

does it have upon the distance of objects focussed
upon?

There is a definite relation between the distance of
an object from the lens and the distance of the lens
from the film.* Thus, let us first establish our true focal
plane. This is a plane in which the image of the sun
will be sharply focussed. In practical work any far
distant object may be used instead of the sun. If we
focus upon an object whose distance from the camera
is one thousand focal lengths away, we find that we have
to increase the distance between the lens and the film
by one one-thousandth of a focal length to bring this
second object into sharp focus. An object at one hun-
dred focal lengths distance will be focussed in a plane
which lies one one-hundredth of a focal length behind
the true focal plane and so forth.

We are using a lens of 25 millimeters focal length and
an effective aperture of f 3.5. Now as the effective
diameter of the lens is 1/3.5 of the focal length we find
that the convergence of the outer pencils of light
amounts to 1/3.5 millimeter for each millimeter of lineal
distance. This amounts to approximately .2857 milli-
meter. As we have established the permissible diameter
of the circle of confusion as .05 millimeter, we have to
determine the extreme distance at which we may place
the second focal plane so that with a divergence of
.2857 millimeter per lineal millimeter, our circle or sec-
tion of the light cone, will not exceed this diameter.

It is easily determined that if each lineal millimeter
gives us a divergence of .2857 millimeter, then each
0.1 lineal millimeter will give us a divergence of .02857
millimeter. Then we find that a divergence of .05 milli-
meter corresponds to a lineal measurement of 0.175
millimeter.

We therefore have a tolerance of 0.175 millimeter in
the movement of the lens toward or away from the
film. As our focal length is 25 millimeters, this amounts
to approximately 1/143 of a focal length. Then it is
evident that if we focus upon an object 143 focal lengths
away, or 3.575 meters (11% feet) we know from our
calculations that objects at infinity are rendered with
a circle of confusion not in excess of .05 millimeter.

* See "Conjugate Foci" in Appendix.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 59

But we also have a tolerance in the other direction, of
equal magnitude. This means a distance from the true
focal plane of 2/143rds of a focal length and a corre-
sponding object distance of 143/2 focal lengths or
slightly under six feet. So we find that while our actual
hyperfocal distance for the 25 millimeter lens, at f 3.5
for confusion of .05 mm., is 11% feet, we add a margin
of safety and call it fifteen feet, which means that when
the lens is set at 15 feet, all objects from 7V2 feet on
will be in focus.

The fixed focus lens is set so that it is focussed for the
hyperfocal distance. We have just seen how the same effect
may be secured by the focussing lens. Now let us consider
further advantages of both types. The fixed focus lens
gives us an image of objects at infinity which is rendered
by circles of confusion of the largest permissible diameter.
This means that objects on the horizon will be rendered in
a very slightly hazy or "soft" manner. This is desirable
in most instances as it helps in giving the appearance of
depth and distance. But in cases where detail and defini-
tion is wanted in objects at a distance, we must use the
focussing type of lens. Remember, too, that the apparent
softness of the image increases with the size of the pro-
jected image.

On the contrary, when we wish to photograph close-ups,
a very common procedure, we must use auxiliary lenses
with the fixed focus lens, but with the focussing lens we
focus directly upon our subject. This is a decided ad-
vantage for rarely have the auxiliary lenses the quality
necessary for motion picture work, and an auxiliary of
poor quality will ruin the definition of the finest anastig-
mat.

In view of these facts, one might well wonder why the
fixed focus lens is ever used. In fact advanced amateurs
really cannot understand this, but the reason is simple.
In the first place, the fixed focus lens is considerably
cheaper to manufacture as the focussing mount must be
accurately made and is therefore an expensive item. But
this is a minor reason.

The average beginner has a very vague idea of the dis-

60 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

tance of objects. He will set the lens for six feet and try
to photograph an object ten feet away, and he will then
blame the camera when the film comes out blurred. The
manufacturers have been forced to adopt the fixed focus
lens to protect themselves from the charges of amateurs
who are unable to judge distance accurately. If a lens is
focussed at six feet, be sure that your subject is six feet
away. Kemember that when you are close to your subject
you have not the tolerance of focus you have when photo-
graphing distant scenes. While your lens set at 15 feet
will give you everything from 7T/2 feet to infinity fairly
sharp, when set at three feet, this tolerance or "depth of
focus" is only a few inches. (For depth of focus tables
and hyperfocal tables, see Appendix.)

There are professional cinematographers who can judge
distances to within limits of an inch or so, but for the
amateur there are just two ways to do this. The first is to
secure a tapeline or ruler and proceed to measure the dis-
tance. The lens is then focussed to this distance. This is a
sure way but so tedious and troublesome that many am-
ateurs prefer to guess at the distance and to trust to luck.

Distance Meters. — The other way is to use the range
finder. In motion picture work where accurate distance
judgment is so necessary it is difficult to understand why
more of these instruments are not in use. The range finder
is positively an indispensable part of the equipment of the
motion picture amateur — or professional for that matter.
These instruments will save their cost almost immediately,
for a couple of spools of film ruined through being out of
focus and more than the price of a fine range finder is lost.

There are two types of range finder on the market now
which are absolutely dependable, each reading to fractions
of a foot. These range finders are the Leitz "Fodis" and
the Zeiss-Ikon "Goerz."

The Fodis is a small, black enamelled instrument, 7/16
inch square and 4% inches long. It has a nickel plated dial
in the center of one side engraved with the various dis-
tances, from 3 to 100 feet. At one end of the square tube,
on the same side as the dial is an eye cup. The meter is
either held in the hand or attached to a clamp fastened to

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 61

the camera in such a position that in looking through the
eyepiece the subject which is being photographed, can be
seen. In doing this care must be taken not to obscure either
of the base windows which are located on the opposite side
of the tube from the dial and eye-cup and at the two ends of
the tube. The object can be seen when one window is
covered, but if both are unobscured, the object will be seen
as though looking at it through a yellow screen. In the
middle of this yellow field there is a colorless circle of

{Courtesy E. Lcitz, Inc.)
A range finder is an indispensable item in the equipment of any cine amateur. The
Fodis illustrated here may be secured with a special holder which may be attached
permanently to the camera.

much smaller diameter. In this inner circle, the details of
the subject will be displaced in relation to that portion
seen through the yellow field. The dial of the instrument
is now turned until the details in both colorless and yellow
portions of the field exactly coincide. The dial will now
indicate the .distance of that particular subject, and you
may depend upon the reading being absolutely accurate.
The lens is now set for the distance indicated by the dis-
tance meter and the photographic work carried on. This
meter is a small reproduction of the large industrial and
military range finders made by the same firm, and it is
made with the same exquisite precision which characterize
the larger instruments.

The other distance meter, the Zeiss-Ikon Goerz, is of
somewhat different dimensions. It measures % x 15/16 x
3% inches. It has an eyecup at one end of one narrow
side and a dial at the other end of the same side. The base
windows are of rectangular shape, one larger than the
other, and located at the ends of the side opposite the dial
and eye cup. The instrument is finished in crystal black
enamel, the dial being finished in polished black enamel
engraved in silver. It reads from four feet to one hundred

62 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

feet. (It is understood that in all amateur motion picture
work, one hundred feet and infinity require coincidental
settings. )

In this meter the image is divided into two distinct por-
tions. The upper portion appears as a long rectangle, and
in this the upper portion of the image appears. Below this
is a square with its upper side coinciding with the central
portion of the lower side of the upper rectangle. In looking
at the image of the subject, the lower portion will be seen
to be displaced laterally. The dial is turned until both
portions of the image coincide and are brought into
proper relationship. The dial now indicates the distance of
the subject. This meter is also absolutely reliable, as might
be expected of any optical product of Zeiss-Ikon.

In both meters the measurement is brought about by
bringing into coincidence the displaced portions of one
image, both have a delicate dial adjustment, both are re-
liable, and both made in the manner in which scientific
instruments should be made, yet both are remarkably inex-
pensive. The writer has had the opportunity of using both
of these instruments and he can say definitely that both
give absolute satisfaction in every way. Moreover, even an
experienced photographer, after using one of these meters
for a short time will not consider being without one, for
a measurement can be made in less time than is usually
consumed in mentally estimating the distance of an object,
and the result is known to be absolutely correct.

Visual Focussing. — There are times, however, when the
only satisfactory arrangement is a direct visual focussing
device. In cases where the exact arrangement of the sub-
ject must be secured by direct vision, coincident with focus-
sing, there are only two devices available. These are
the reflecting focussing device and the sliding base focus-
sing device, both Goerz products. The reflecting focusser
is a "T" shaped device. A short barrel of a size which
screws into the lens socket of the Filmo and Victor
cameras. From the side of this barrel extends a smaller
tube which in turn has a sliding button extending through
the side. This smaller tube is a compound microscope
which may be accurately focussed upon the focussing

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

screen. This screen is so placed that it will be exactly the
same distance from the lens that the film surface is, but at
right angles to the principal optical axis of the lens used.

The Camera Angle. Here we have the camera with the lens at point "P." The lines
PX and PZ are the "Sidelines" while the line PY is the axial line of the optical system
and the center line of the field. It is evident that the field AA' although only one-fourth
as wide as the field DD', will fill the same film area. Thus nearby objects are represented
in large size and more nearly fill the frame than objects farther away.

A total reflection prism is placed at the junction of the
tubes whose position is controlled by the button extending
through the side of the tube. When this button is pushed
away from the eyepiece the prism is placed in the path of
the rays entering the lens and forms an image upon
the visual screen just as the image is secured in a reflecting

64 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

camera. When the button is pulled toward the eyepiece
the prism is removed from the path of the light rays and
the full amount of the rays fall upon the film. Thus we
have a reflecting focussing device which entails absolutely
no loss of light. In addition this device with the normal
extension adapter supplied with each lens affords a lens
extension which makes possible the photography of objects
lying only about four or five focal lengths distant from the
camera. This is a point of very considerable value and one
which will be discussed more fully in a later chapter.

Sliding Base. — The sliding base device is somewhat
more elaborate, but perhaps the most versatile device yet
designed for substandard use. The principle involved is
similar to that used in the finest studio cameras. Briefly
the device consists of two parts which move in relation to
each other. One of these is a base, the front of which car-
ries the mask box and sun-shade. Upon this is mounted a
sliding piece to which the camera itself is secured. By the
side of the camera a focussing microscope is mounted.
This device is set upon a tripod, and the camera moved
to the right of the base. This brings the focussing micro-
scope into line behind the mask box. The picture is com-
posed and the lens focussed by means of this microscope.
When this is done the handle is moved and the camera
pushed to the left side of the base. This brings the camera
lens into position behind the mask box in just the position
occupied by the lens of the focussing microscope. The pic-
ture is now made with full assurance that the scene de-
picted upon the film will be just exactly as desired. As has
been mentioned this is the method used by professionals
and is perhaps the most perfect visual focussing system
yet devised for focussing the motion picture camera.

Focussing Microscope. — There is one other method of
focussing. This is by means of the focussing microscope
as supplied with the Bell & Howell Filmo. This is a little
device equipped with a ground glass screen and a magnify-
ing optical system. It is so arranged that the lens may be
removed from the Filmo and inserted in the barrel of the
device. If this is now held so that the lens is in approxi-
mately the same position it will occupy when on the

1. A typical amateur camera outfit including yictor camera, Goerz telephoto lens,
reflecting focusser, sliding base, mask box, outside iris and title devices, Cinophot,

Tenax meter and Leica camera for stills with the Fodis range finder attached.

2. The projector outfit consisting of DeVry projector, Prismo screen and Kodak rewind.

66 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

camera, and the focussing mount turned until the image
is clearly seen, the lens may be removed, replaced upon
the camera and the exposure made with confidence that the
image upon the film will be just as accurately focussed
as the image which was seen in the microscope. This
method of focussing depends upon the personal equation
as does all visual focussing. If you possess the ability to
correctly focus a photographic lens visually, you can se-
cure dependable results, and any failures met with will be
a result of personal error and will not be the fault of the
instrument. This device supplies the place of a visual
focussing arrangement.

(Courtesy Bell & Howell)
The focussing microscope. This is a device designed for use with the Filmo camera
which enables the lens to be focussed visually by removing it from the camera and
inserting it in the focussing microscope.

Thus we see how the gravest objection to the focussing-
lens can be overcome. Let us then examine the advantages
of this lens. First, and most important, we can focus upon
any object within range of the focussing mount, knowing
that we have secured a definition in which the diffusion
due to the circle of confusion is little if any larger than the
actual silver grain of the developed image. In other words
we secure the finest possible degree of sharpness. This
means that we can use a tremendous enlargement in pro-
jection. The possibilities of projection from an accurately
focussed negative was demonstrated to the writer recently,
when an ordinary 16 millimeter film was projected in a
new projector, soon to be introduced upon the market,
upon a screen 6% x 9 feet with a quality fully as good as
any theatrical projection. One scene was from an agri-
cultural film, showing a prize-winning hog. The individual
bristles were plainly visible upon the screen despite the
approximate enlargement of 270 diameters, the equivalent

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 67

of standard projection 22% feet wide. The projector throw
was approximately 30 feet.

It would have been practically impossible to duplicate
this performance using a film made with a fixed focus lens.

Also, with the focussing lens we may take advantage of
differential focussing, which is a subject of the greatest
importance in securing pictorial effects. By focussing on
the closest possible portion of our subject, we are able to
throw the distant background greatly out of focus. This
prevents the background from becoming obtrusive, it pre-
vents objects in the background from distracting the atten-
tion of those who view the film and in this manner con-
centrates the attention upon the principal subject. In
addition, it adds considerably to the purely pictorial effect
of the subject.

In the case of objects at a distance, we must use a lens
of longer focal length than normal. This subject will be
discussed in detail in a later portion of the book, but at
present we will notice that the fixed focus lens is prac-
tically always built as an integral part of the camera and
does not permit interchange with other lenses. No motion
picture camera outfit can be considered to be complete
until it is equipped with a full battery of lenses, including
one of five and one-half or six inches focal length. This
means that the full battery must be mounted in focussing
mounts.

In short, the only lens to be considered by the serious
amateur is one which is mounted in a finely calibrated
focussing mount.

With the camera set up, then, you determine the distance
of the subject, or the central portion of the space in which
the action will take place, and set the focussing mount of
the lens to correspond with this distance. This procedure
will be followed by owners of the new Victor camera, the
latest model Cine-Kodak B, the Bell & Howell Filmo, the
DeVry, the Cine-Geyer and other similar instruments.

All is ready now to make the exposure providing the
lighting is right, but as this is a subject which must be
dealt with at some length, we will assume that it is cor-
rect. The release is pressed and the camera allowed to run

68 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

for a sufficient length of time to record the desired action.
Try to keep this under thirty seconds and more than ten
seconds. If any interruption or bad mistake on the part
of an actor occurs, stop the camera, call "Cut," which will
inform the actors that the camera is stopped, as will be
explained in the chapter devoted to direction. A small
slate is held up in front of the camera bearing the letters
"NG" (No good), and the scene started again. If the
scene progresses as it should and terminates normally, the
slate is photographed bearing the number of the scene as
will be explained later.

Pam. — Occasions will arise when it will be desirable to
move the camera during exposure. This movement, usually
a lateral one, is known as the panorama or more commonly
the "pam." This movement may be either rapid or slow.
The slow pam is made to show consecutively different por-
tions of any given object. The rapid pam is used in follow-
ing a rapidly moving object, keeping it in the center of the
field.

The slow pam must be made very slowly, and no camera
motion should be allowed except the lateral one. Any up
and down motion will give a most unpleasant screen dance.
At the most, any given object should be allowed at least
six seconds to cross the screen in a slow pam. This effect is
secured at its best with the aid of a tripod having a
panoramic head. This may have a friction device which
aids in securing a uniform motion, it may be operated
through gears by means of a crank which also gives a slow,
uniform motion, or it may be an automatic head such as
is made for the Filmo camera which operates through the
medium of the camera spring and makes the panoramic
exposure entirely by automatic means.

At no time in a slow pam should the motion be so rapid
that any blurring is noticeable.

The rapid pam is an entirely different form of motion
picture. In this we have a subject moving very rapidly,
such as a horse running. These pams must be made with
the camera held freely in the hands. You will probably not
secure a good result with the first one or two of these which
you try, for there is one thing which is imperative. The

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 69

projected film must show the subject in a fixed position
with regard to the edges of the frame. If the subject ad-
vances so that it nearly runs out of the frame and then
drops backward until it almost drops out of the frame, then
rises and falls, the result will be very annoying to spec-
tators. Remember that in this work you are imitating the
effect we secure when we follow, with our eyes a similar
rapidly moving object. In this case the background is
neglected, and allowed to blur, in fact the greater the blur-
ring due to this motion of the camera, the greater will be
the effect of speed. Moreover if this blurring is so con-
siderable that all vestige of detail is lost the effect upon the
eye will not be as tiresome as when there is a vaguely
defined detail which the eye tries to catch. In actual
life, when you are watching a race, you unconsciously
ignore the background, so in the rapid pam you want to
make this background as formless and unobtrusive as
possible.

Tripods. — There are many forms of tripods on the mar-
ket suitable for use with amateur motion picture cameras.
As far as the actual tripod is concerned, that is the three
legs and the solid top, almost any type will serve, the more
rigid the better. In fact, there are few types of stand which
will prove as useful as the light weight home portrait
stand made by various manufacturers of photographic
supplies. One of these equipped with an extensible member
which will permit the use of the tripod outdoors upon un-
even ground is the best. These extensible members are
equipped with steel spurs which prevent slipping. For in-
door use they telescope into the main leg and the spurs are
protected. The stand may then be used upon the most
highly finished floors. Due to their construction, the legs
cannot slip, allowing the stand to fall over. The legs may
be clamped in any position, while a center post which bears
the camera plate may be raised and lowered within quite
large limits. Then too, these stands have a double head
which is designed so that the camera may be tilted at any
desired angle up to 90 degrees. By reversing the camera
upon this head, this full tilt may be utilized in either
direction.

70 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

There are also numerous telescopic metal tripods offered.
Some of these are excellent and others are worthless. The
tripods of the Triax type, which fold rather than telescope,
which are made of the new aluminum alloy enabling them
to support from 60 to 70 pounds dead weight, which unfold
ready for use by pressure upon a button and which lock in
both open and closed positions are the most satisfactory
light tripods. The writer has used one of these light tripods
with a 16 millimeter camera with complete satisfaction.
As the weight is less than two pounds and the closed length
about sixteen inches, the tripod is convenient to carry
when a larger and heavier tripod would be left at home.
There is sufficient rigidity for the automatic camera to be
operated correctly.

There are also a number of "walking stick" tripods.
Some of these have a light duralumin tripod concealed
within the bamboo body of the stick itself, others are made
in which the stick itself splits into three 120 degree legs
with one telescopic draw. These novelties are convenient,
but hardly rigid enough to be fully satisfactory, although
by steadying them with the hand they will serve in an
emergency and they are of course very convenient to carry.

The cheap metal tripods whether folding or telescopic
should be avoided as their use will invariably result in a
dancing, shaking picture upon the screen.

There are also numerous supplementary heads supplied
for use with the amateur motion picture camera. There is
the ACH automatic panorama head for use with the Filmo
camera, giving a fully automatic panorama operated by
the camera drive spring, the ACH geared panoramic head
operated manually by crank, the Triax which has both
tilt and panorama similar to those employed on profes-
sional tripods, the Ball head, which is a smoothly polished
steel ball upon which the camera plate rests, permitting
motion in any direction. It is operated by an extension
handle, which may be moved in either horizontal or ver-
tical directions or a combination of both. This gives a very
useful control. A similar effect may be secured with the
friction heads similar to the Omnia. The ball tripod head
gives a direct oblique motion while the Omnia gives the

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 71

oblique by means of a combination of the vertical and
horizontal movements.

The tripod selected for the camera must above all be
firm and rigid. This is especially true with those cameras
of advanced design which provide for both manual and
automatic control. The use of the hand crank will give
rise to vibration under conditions when the automatic
camera would not. For use with cameras which are spring
driven only, the lighter type of tripod may be used. The
combination camera, can of course be used on the same
type of tripod as long as it is limited to spring drive.

Any combination of tripods and heads mentioned may be
used with all success, the principal thing to be remem-
bered is that a tripod will add at least 100% to your
chances of producing a good film.

There is one tripod which is quite novel and deserves
special mention. This is made by the makers of the famous
ACH accessories. It is known as the "table tripod." It is a
small stand about ten inches in height intended to be used
upon a table. It is compact and convenient for use indoors
with any small table. It has a tilt head allowing the camera
to be set at any desired angle. It may be of interest to
know that the ACH accessories were all designed by an
amateur who made the first model of each of these acces-
sories for his own personal use. This is a radical departure
from the usual one in which a professional designer pro-
duces accessories with the sole idea of sales value.

There is a little more to be said concerning the actual
manipulation of the camera itself in so far as making
straight shots at normal speed is concerned. Lighting,
trick work, special lenses and their uses, artificial lighting,
sets, acting and so forth will be taken up in their own
respective chapters. There is one more subject to be
covered in the present chapter, however, and that is the
one which is concerned with cinematography at other
than normal speed.

Camera Speed. — There exists in the minds of many
people considerable confusion concerning the relation
which exists between camera speed, projector speed and
screen speed. Let us consider a specific example. Suppose

72 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

that we have an actor before a camera. Let him walk across
the field of the lens at such a speed that he will occupy five
seconds in making the passage. This means that his image
will be recorded upon 80 frames of film. We know this be-
cause sixteen frames of film pass through the camera each
second when the instrument is operated at normal speed.
Now if we project this film through a projector which is
also running at normal speed the action will be repro-
duced as it was in nature. The actor will cross the screen
in five seconds.

Now let us operate the camera at one-fourth normal
speed, or four frames per second. The entire action of
crossing the field will now be recorded upon twenty frames
of film (4 x 5). Now if this is projected in a projector
running at normal speed, these twenty frames will pass
through the projector in iy± seconds, making the action
very fast, therefore :

Running the camera at slow speed gives an exaggerated
speed upon the screen.

Now let us once more take the first film made at normal
speed and run it through the projector at two times normal
speed, or thirty-two frames per second. We have eighty
frames in all, therefore these will pass through the pro-
jector in two and one-half seconds or twice natural speed,
therefore :

Increasing the projector speed increases the speed upon
the screen.

Now let us take the film which we made at one-fourth
normal speed and project it at one-fourth normal speed.
We exposed four frames per second in the camera, and the
action required five seconds for completion, giving us
twenty frames exposed, as Ave have seen. If we project this
at one-fourth normal speed, we shall project four frames
per second, and the action will require five seconds screen
time. In this case also we have reproduced normal motion,
but we observe a painful flicker due to the slow speed,
therefore :

Any picture projected at the same speed used in talking
will give a natural screen speed.

Also,

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 73

Projection at a slower rate than normal gives rise to
painful flickering upon the screen.

By the same line of reasoning we can see that no matter
at what speed the camera is operated, a reproduction of
natural motion will be secured by operating the projector
at the same speed.

Slow Motion. — Now let us take the pictures at an ex-
tremely fast camera speed. Suppose we use four times
normal speed, this means that sixty-four frames of film
will be exposed during each second of the five second ac-
tion, or a total of 320 frames in all. When Ave project this
at normal speed, we find that these 320 frames require
twenty seconds to pass through the projector, and upon the
screen we have the action proceeding at just one-fourth
normal speed, therefore :

The more rapidly the camera is operated the slower will
be the screen speed.

This is the way in which the slow motion pictures are
made which are so greatly admired by everyone.

The extremely slow motion which has been mentioned —
that is an extremely slow crank speed — is inadvisable. Half
speed is sometimes permissible when the light is so poor
that no picture could be obtained otherwise, but aside from
this the slow speeds should not be used to any great extent.
One of the most common uses was that in which a traffic
snarl was shown upon the screen with the various vehicles
darting about at tremendous speed, and for similar comedy
effects this slow crank may still be used, but for the most
part, it should be avoided.

When the light is so poor that exposure is impossible at
even the widest available lens opening, and where the speed
of the subject is not excessive it is possible to operate at
half speed in order to secure the picture, but it must be
remembered that the screen speed will then be twice nor-
mal, although this can be compensated for somewhat by
slowing the projector a trifle.

These are about the only conditions which warrant the
use of the slow crank, but on the other side of normal
speed, in the high speed camera work for making slow
motion films we have an entirely new world opened before

74 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

us and one of the most pleasurable branches of cinema-
tography made possible. It must be remembered that for
true slow motion pictures, the speed of the camera must be
considerably faster than normal. At the present time this
speed is available in the Filmo Superspeed model, the
Victor regular model, the Cine-Kodak "A" and the DeVry
special model. The Filmo is a special camera made for
this purpose alone, while the Victor, Cine-Kodak and De-
Vry may be adjusted for taking at either normal or super-
speed. There is also a Filmo model which will take at either
normal or double speed, the double speed giving a slight
slow motion effect upon the screen.

It is interesting to note that of all the slow motion
models, only the Cine-Kodak is hand cranked. With this
camera both slow motion and single crank are secured
through attaching small gear boxes to the camera. Natur-
ally, this gives the operator full control of speed so that,
when he desires, he can vary the rate of camera operating
speed. This enables him to speed up some subjects and
slow down others.

A famous scientist once said that people wandered all
over the world in search of the interesting and of the beau-
tiful when there was more of each in the ordinary backyard
than the average individual could see in a lifetime. This
is a very true statement. The reason we do not see these
things is the fact that the human sense of sight is greatly
limited. We can see things which are of average size. We
cannot see the very small objects and very large objects
are beyond our appreciation. We can also see motion
which is of average speed, or rather we can see a tiny por-
tion of speed which is neither fast nor slow. When we
know that there are movements which are measured in
inches per century, and others which are measured in
miles per second, we find that sight is a very deficient
sense. The motion picture camera extends this sense of
vision so as to embrace perhaps a thousand times as many
speeds as we can observe with the unaided eye.

For example, when we see an aesthetic dance, we are
pleased with the grace and rhythm, but the abstract beauty
of the motions themselves is lost to us because they are

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 75

more rapid than the eye can readily follow. If we make a
film of such a dance, using superspeed, Ave find that a world
of beauty is opened to us. We find the same thing in hun-
dreds of human activities. For instance, there are few
things which possess more sheer beauty than an expert
swimmer making a dive. We lose this in natural sight be-
cause of the rapidity of the fall, but slow it down four, six
or eight times, and you will readily perceive the bird-like
flight of the diver. This is especially true of the swan dive.
Then, even in Nature, we find the same thing. I once saw
a film made at high speed and a fairly long focus lens of
dolphins playing oil' shore at a resort beach. These crea-
tures are graceful at any time, but the film which showed
them rising slowly from the water and soaring like huge
birds made one of the most interesting films I ever saw.

But novelty and beauty by no means exhaust the pos-
sibilities of the slow motion film. There is nothing which
can equal it in securing true comedy effects. If you want
to see a film which will always raise a laugh and which
will not pall as does the slapstick, make a slow motion
film of a group of kittens playing. The cat is so quick in
its motions that we lose the subtilties of its action, but
when slowed down, these motions become most laughable,
and such a film will retain its interest for an indefinite
period.

In the field of sport the slow motion is of incalculable
value. In the first place, slow motion films showing experts
in action serve as the best instruction obtainable, being
actually far superior to personal instruction. This method
of instruction has already been applied to golf and slow
motion films of golf experts may be purchased on the
market. The superiority of this form of instruction is due
to the fact that no matter how closely we may watch the
swing of a professional golfer, our eye cannot actually fol-
low the motion and we unconsciously reconstruct the entire
action from observing only the beginning and the end of
the swing. With the slow motion film we may carefully
watch every change of position throughout the course of
the swing. This principle is applicable to every form of
sport known. The boxer learns how to guard by watching

76 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

the slow motion film of expert boxers. Tennis players
quickly learn the proper swings. Baseball players can
watch the flight of a ball, see it curve or drop slowly and
actually see the meeting of the bat and ball, or the exact
amount of distance between the ball and the bat in a strike.

Kacing fans, whether followers of horseflesh or gasoline,
know that the tricks of jockeying are so subtle that even
experts often miss them, but the slow motion record will
pitilessly expose all such questionable tactics, as we see
the action drawn out upon the screen. But aside from this,
the lover of horses should not miss the opportunity of
securing at least a hundred feet of slow motion film at the
next race. There are few subjects which will appear to
better advantage upon the screen than a slow motion of
running horses. If a steeplechase can be secured, so much
the better. This brings to mind the clear, crisp days when
the hounds are running. If you are lucky enough to secure
a position where the hunt will pass, you will secure the
film of films. First comes Keynard, trotting along ap-
parently at ease, but the slow motion film may disclose the
dragging movements of exhaustion, then come the hounds
in full cry, tongues lolling as they sail through the air like
monstrous bats, and then the horses and riders springing
through space, with clothes floating rather than flying
behind them. Remember that you have only one hundred
feet of film in your camera, and that this is sufficient for
only one minute at four times normal speed or for thirty
seconds at eight times normal. Conserve your film, and try
to get the entire hunt on the one spool, but in this case
prepare to have a number of duplicates made for every
member of the hunt will want a copy.

One may name through the entire list of outdoor sports
and for each of them a use will suggest itself for slow
motion. Then, there is the other side of this same picture.
Let us again take golf as an example. Suppose that we
have studied the slow motion films of more expert players.
Then we have a friend make a slow motion picture of our-
selves. We study that, and compare this film with the first
and in this way, we at once spot the fault which is keeping
our scores so high. The slow motion film serves first as

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 77

instructor and then as critic. So evident is this value,
that the large Universities are using this very method for
training the various teams which will represent the Uni-
versity in athletic events.

This would seem to exhaust the possibilities of the slow
motion, but many amateurs who have introduced their
cameras into their business routine have found that by
making slow motion films of various commercial opera-
tions, unnecessary motions are clearly revealed and that
any ordinary business executive can go into the produc-
tion department and beat the efficiency engineer at his own
work. In short one may truthfully say that the slow motion
camera extends our field of vision to such an extent that
our familiar world is lost and we find three new things of
interest for each familiar phase of life.

The use of the slow motion camera requires some care,
of course. In the first place the mechanism is necessarily
more easily injured, for it works under a tremendous
strain. Without investigating the exact measurements it
may be safely assumed that an intermittent mechanism
working at eight times normal speed is operating under a
mechanical strain about one hundred times as great as
that encountered at normal speed, for mechanical strain
advances out of all proportion to absolute speed when
operating at extremely high speeds. Remember that at
eight times normal, the film is exposed at the rate of 128
exposures per second, that the film must be started, ad-
vanced and brought to a dead stop in a period of time only
l/256th of one second in duration, and that the film is
both stopped and started 7,680 times every minute. At
the same time, the practical limits of size and weight limit
the bulk and therefore the mechanical strength of the
mechanism, and finally this mechanism must continue to
operate for long periods with an accuracy of plus or minus
one one-thousandth of one inch. Therefore, the slow mo-
tion camera must receive the best of care if it is to remain
in a satisfactory working condition.

In threading be absolutely sure that the film fits snugly
about the sprocket, and that the teeth engage the perfora-
tions exactly. Watch the loops carefully, be sure that they

78 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

are neither too small nor too large. Run at least six inches
of film or stock through the mechanism at normal speed
to make sure that the film feed is working properly, and
finally see that no dust, grit, film particles or other foreign
matter is in the camera chamber.

In making the exposure, calculate the exposure (i.e., the
diaphragm stop) as usual, then increase the stop propor-
tionately. Thus if the meter indicates stop f 16 and you
are using four times normal speed, you would use f 8 and
for eight times normal speed you would use f 5.6, because
the lens stop values vary, not in direct proportion, but as
their squares. Thus (5.6)2 equals 31.36 or for our purposes
32, (8)2 equals 64 and (16)2 equals 256. Thus we see that
the figures 32, 64 and 128 have the relative values of %,
y± and 1. Or expressed in exposure values they run 8, 4 and
1 corresponding to our shutter speeds of normal, four times
normal and eight times normal.

As we have to use a larger lens opening with the high
speed camera than we would otherwise, we are forced to
observe two points. First, we cannot use the high speed
camera unless there is an abundance of good light, or un-
less we make use of an extreme wide aperture lens such as
the f 2 or the f 1.5. In fact the latter (the f 1.5) is excep-
tionally well adapted to this work as it is more than five
times as fast as the f 3.5, which means that we can make
four times normal speed film in a light which would be
insufficient for normal speed film with the usual f 3.5 lens.
The f 2 lens is more than three times as fast as the f 3.5.

The second point to be remembered is that as we increase
the lens aperture we must take more and more care with
focussing, so that when we reach the largest aperture we
must focus exactly or risk losing the film. Here we find
that the range finder or distance meter has ceased to be a
very convenient accessory and has become an absolute
necessity.

Finally, remember to keep the camera scrupulously
clean at all times. Brush it out with a soft camel's hair
brush, and make sure that there is no dust or grit in the
corners. This will not only cause the bearings to wear, but
it will also scratch the film.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 79

At times grit or dust, or perhaps a gummy deposit from
the emulsion will accumulate in the gate causing scratched
film and causing the film to "chatter" or stick in the gate.
The gate must be kept thoroughly clean. Wipe it with a
soft cloth, and if any of the emulsion deposit is seen, re-
move it with a horn palette knife or similar instrument.
Never clean the gate with any iron or steel instrument as
you will be sure to make tiny scratches which act as chisels
and aggravate the trouble. Do not oil the gate and do not
use alcohol or other solvents in cleaning the camera. When
the gate has been scraped with a soft instrument, the final
particles of emulsion may be removed by gently rubbing
the aperture plate with a moist cloth.

Do not expose the camera or lens to direct sunlight ex-
cept when it is in use. Do not let it lay around where the
sun will fall upon it, especially in hot weather. A hot
camera will almost always result in buckled film and other
similar troubles,

CHAPTER FOUR

EXTERIOR LIGHTING

We have already considered lighting in reference to its
chemical effect upon the sensitive emulsion, but it has an-
other purpose almost as important. This is its power of
making objects visible in their complete physical form.
For example we have light, formless and without physical
structure of any kind. This is light in the abstract, the
light which comes from the sun or other source and which
affects the sensitive chemicals which go to make up the
emulsion used in photography. This light has one peculiar
characteristic which makes possible both sight and photog-
raphy. Light travels in a path which may be regarded
as a perfectly straight line. This is not strictly true, but
for our purposes we may regard it as being so. The only
exception which we will consider is that the light ray is
bent at an angle when passing through certain transparent
substances. Also, when the ray strikes an opaque object a
certain proportion of the light is sent back or reflected by
that object. The amount of light, the individual portions
of the ray which are reflected determine the color and tone
of that object. And finally the reflected ray leaves the
surface of the object at an angle equal to that at which the
original ray struck the object, but in an opposite direc-
tion. Due to this fact, that light is reflected and re-reflected
from all objects, we soon have the enormous, the infinite
number of rays crossing each other at all directions which
provides us with "daylight," the light which enables us to
see objects which are protected from the direct rays of
the sun.

Direction of Light Fall. — As some light is falling
upon any given object from almost every conceivable di-
rection, it follows that light is also being reflected from

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

that object in every conceivable direction, but we must
remember that any given ray reflected from that body
travels in a straight line.

W«-d

Exterior lighting. This shows how the light falls from the left and from the rear of

the camera upon the subject. This light also falls upon a soft reflector and is reflected

to illuminate the shadow side of the subject and upon a hard reflector from which it

is reflected to give a backlight.

Then if we stand in such a position that we face such an
object, it follows that one ray from each infinitesimal point
in the surface of that body is directed through the pupil of
our eye, and as the rays travel in straight lines, it follows
that a tiny image of that object will be reconstructed in
the eye. So we find that the straight line travel of light
rays combined with the reflecting properties of all objects
makes it possible for us to perceive form.

In like manner, there are certain characteristics inherent
in particular substances which cause that object to reflect
only certain portions of the light ray. This gives rise to
color; and finally, no object will reflect all of the light
which falls upon it. The extent to which the total light is
reflected by any object, in any given direction determines

82 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

the visual luminosity of that object when viewed from the
direction in question.

In photography we may disregard color for the time
being, although it plays a very important part in mono-
chromatic photography as we shall see later.

Our first idea is that the purpose of light is to render
objects visible, but our sense of sight not only makes ob-
jects visible as masses, it indicates the shape and form of
the object in full detail. This is done by our interpretation
of the shadow forms upon the surface of the object. The
variation of tone, of shade and the changing balance of
light and shade enable us to perceive form, but when a
skillful painter faithfully imitates these forms upon a flat
surface, we imagine we still see the original form. Just so,
a skillful photographer will record upon his plate the
gradation of light and shade which makes form, three-
dimensional form, quite apparent. However, the photo-
graphic film cannot reproduce the infinite variety of natu-
ral gradation, the photographic scale being compressed.
Due to this fact, we must have contrast of a rather well
defined nature in the original to render a fairly good
photographic image. When the light falls from an im-
proper angle the form of the object will be lost, and it is
no longer familiar.

Not only is this true, but the quality of the light which
falls upon the object has a great deal of influence upon its
appearance. If the light is unusually hard, that is with
intense light falling from a single source upon one side of
the object, with sharply edged, deep shadows on the op-
posite sides, the relief is exaggerated and curves become
angular. Such lighting gives a harsh effect. On the other
hand if we have a general diffused light, not very bright,
and with no decided directional effect, we have a light in
which there is very little contrast. Angles become softened,
with diffused edges and we have a "flat" photograph. If
we have a light which is brilliant on one side, but not of
maximum intensity, and if we have the shadow side illu-
minated by reflected light considerably less intense than
the principal lighting, we will have a light which gives a
flowing gradation to curved surfaces, yet which picks out

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 83

angular constructions sharply. This is a balanced light
such as is proper for most work. If you have an unusually
"strong" scene, a deliberately harsh light may be used to
heighten the effectiveness of the scene. For example, sup-
pose we have a criminal, stalking a victim. He lurks in the
shadow of shrubbery. We illuminate his face with a con-
centrated spot. The features on the lighted side leap out
into a practically flat glare of white, while the side opposite
the light blends into the shadows of the background. This
makes a very effective lighting which adds to the spirit of
the scene, but such a light used to photograph the baby in
the nursery would be absurd. So we see that the diffusion
of the light, i. e., harsh, normal or soft, may be worked into
the spirit of the scene to aid in giving the audience the
proper impression. Harsh light for mystery, evil, terror.
Normal light for normal, cheerful scenes and a soft light
for scenes which verge upon the sentimental. Still there
are exceptions. A campfire scene may be of quite a senti-
mental nature, yet the lighting is harsh. This is not a sym-
pathetic light treatment, but necessitated by the scene
enacted. Campfires give such light and any other would be
unnatural. Likewise a furtive figure slipping away in a fog
would require a flat light, for there is normally but little
contrast in a fog. However, common sense will indicate
when an otherwise inappropriate lighting effect should be
used.

Many pictorialists in the still field advocate working in
hazy light. For their purpose this is all right, but the
motion picture photographer should swing back to the
"Brownie" rules, bright light and lots of it. The cinema-
tographer must not only study lighting, he must master it
before working consistently with soft effects and even then
he will secure these effects under a brighter light than does
the pictorialist. The latter has a camera with which he
may make an exposure for two, three or even more seconds.
The motion camera is limited to an exposure of a frac-
tional part of a second, usually l/35th or less. The motion
picture camera will not permit the necessary exposure for
working in very hazy light, unless equipped with an ex-
tremely large aperture lens. Finally as any spirit of art

84 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

expressed in the usual motion picture is the art of the
drama rather than of pictorial composition, the motion
picture should be more brilliantly illuminated than the
still photograph. The illumination of the motion picture
more nearly approaches the lighting used with normal
commercial still photographs.

You who wish to go into the art of picture work, for your
own benefit, work with the brilliant lighting until you
know just how to control your film, and then if you will,
venture into the realm of fancy lighting — but remember,
it is a difficult field. A knowledge of lighting is the knowl-
edge which has brought to certain cinematographers sal-
aries which rival those paid to directors and stars. At the
risk of disillusionment I must add that anyone can learn
to thread and' crank a camera in a very short time. In fact
many of the artists in this line use electrically driven
cameras in the studios, but in the arrangement of the light-
ing effects these masters demonstrate their supremacy.

As far as direction is concerned we have six primary
lights. These are: from the right; from below; from the
left ; from above ; from the front, and from the rear. These
primary directions, like primary colors should be used
sparingly and for only special effects. The perfect lighting
is a combination of two or more primary lights. For ex-
ample the standard oblique lighting, which should be used
by the amateur at the start of his work and at all times
when he wants the scene depicted with no special light
effects, is a combination of side, front and vertical lights.
In this discussion the front and rear directions of light
will be considered as from the position of the subject, not
of the camera. Thus the light described will come from
behind the camera, at one side and above, as is found in
sunlight in mid-afternoon, with the subject facing South
(in the Northern hemisphere).

If we examine a good painting, we will very probably
find a small area of pure color in the composition. This
area serves as an accent. If we analyse the painting
we will see that this same fleck of color placed else-
where in the picture would be a glaring defect. Such
accents must be placed only after a careful study of the

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 85

composition. In the same manner we make use of spot
lights to give a pronounced, but small area of pure
lighting to serve as an accent, but if improperly used it
will ruin the picture. Let us take full backlighting for
example. In this work, i.e., lighting directly from the
rear, our first care is to screen the source of light from
the lens. Then we must decide just how we will arrange
the effect. In consequence, we rarely use the full back-
light except in close-ups and usually then only with
feminine characters. By proper use we will get a soft,
glowing halo about the head, but if we don't use this
light properly we will no doubt get a general cloudy,
foggy effect which ruins details, and which is a blood
brother to the halation which is the bane of the still
photographer. In fact, in usual studio practice, the
backlight is a secondary light, combining the rear light
with either side or vertical, and sometimes it is tertiary,
combining all three directions.

It is very difficult to describe the effects of the various
pure light directions, but the accompanying illustrations
show this to good advantage. Further illustrations show
some of the more common secondary and tertiary light
directions.

Balancing Light. — In the combined forms, we encoun-
ter the problems of balancing our lights. Kemember that
an evenly balanced light is worse even than a pure primary
light direction. This cross lighting will trip you up if you
are not very careful, for our eyes are so sensitive to delicate
nuances of gradation that we can see contours perfectly
when the camera will register only a flat plane. The actinic
value of the light reflected from the lightest parts of the
bright side of the subject should be at least twice as intense
as that reflected from the brightest portion of the shadow
side.

This problem of balancing the light is one which has
proven very difficult because it has not been clearly un-
derstood. To approach it properly we must consider just
a bit of photographic technique. The sensitive material
which is coated upon the celluloid film used in the
camera is known as the emulsion. It is usually stated
that this emulsion becomes darkened, during the various

86 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

processes of finishing, in proportion to the amount of
light received. This is not true. It becomes darkened
relatively proportionately to the amount of light re-
ceived. Thus we find that a scene in nature in which the
ratio of the brightest light to the darkest shadow is one
to fifty thousand, our photograph will show a scale of
gradation in which this ratio is perhaps one to one
hundred. In other words each tone in the photograph
embraces five hundred tones of the original scene, there-
fore, while the relative proportions are maintained,
the scale is reduced to one five-hundredth. If we assign
scale values to the various areas of the original scene,
we may have two adjacent areas which have values of
say 1,200 and 1,500. The difference is quite plain to
our eye, yet as these areas only lie 300 points apart and
as the photograph goes in jumps of 500 points, the
photograph will render these areas as identical. There-
fore, it is obvious that we cannot rely upon our eyes
to guide us in balancing the light. Not at any rate until
we gain some experience in this fascinating part of
motion picture photography.

By the use of the monochrome filter, the problem of
balancing the light becomes more simple. This filter is a
blue glass through which the scene is viewed prior to mak-
ing the exposure. While the special monochrome filters
are best adapted to this purpose, any blue photo filter
may be used as an emergency filter. To make such a filter,
buy a gelatin "C" filter (Wratten & Wainwright ) , two
inches square and bind it between two squares of glass of
the same size. In looking at any scene through this filter
you will see a very close approximation of the photograph
as it will appear when finished. Not only is this true, but
it also degrades light values to some extent, making it
easy to judge the values as they will be registered upon
the film.

Look at the scene through this filter, with the light fall-
ing from one side. The lighted sides of objects will appear
quite bright, but in the shadows the detail will be lost. Note
this effect carefully so that it may be remembered. The
next step is to place the reflectors, so we will pause to learn
something of these very simple and valuable accessories.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 87

Reflectors. — A reflector is a flat surface coated with
some white substance which will serve to reflect light. In
practice, in the studios these reflectors are usually wooden
frames two by four feet, covered with wall board. Two of
these sections are hinged to fold together in such a manner
that when spread out they will make a surface four feet
square. This surface is then either painted with a blue-
white flat drying paint or white enamel or it is covered
with sheet tin or tin foil. The flat paint makes a soft
reflector which diffuses the reflected light, the enamel
makes a medium hard reflector with a more direct reflection
and the metal coatings make a hard reflector which reflects
the light in a manner not unlike the action of a mirror.
These reflectors are provided with props so that they will
stand in any position and at any angle selected. For am-
ateur work, pieces of wall board 18 inches by 3 feet may be
hinged with a strong cloth hinge, which reduces both
weight and bulk. These reflectors are so easily made and
of such great value that every amateur should have at least
a half dozen.

One of the most interesting devices recently introduced
is the Westphalen reflector for amateur cine work. This
consists of a flexible reflector supported by a folding tripod
stand. The whole thing may be packed in very small space,
and when opened provides a perfectly efficient reflector
for all photographic work. This reflector is even better
than the usual rigid type, because of the ease with which
a half dozen or more can be transported. As they are re-
markably inexpensive it is recommended that the amateur
who expects to go in for photo-drama production provide
himself with at least a half dozen of this flexible type of
reflector.

Take one of these reflectors and so place it that the
shadow side of the leading character is considerably
lightened, then with others illuminate the other parts of
the group. Now have a sketchy rehearsal to see that none
of the actors will pass out of the area lighted by the re-
flectors. When the reflectors are finally arranged, go back
to the camera and again look at the scene through the blue
glass. If your work has been properly done the scene will

88 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

look just about as it did before, but there will be no black
shadow, rather every bit of detail can be seen in the shadow
and the scene will look, through the filter, about as it looked
to the eye before arranging the reflectors. It may be
noticed at this place that in almost every instance where
special manipulation is employed, it is done, not to create
an artificial effect, but rather to overcome the deficiencies
of the photographic process to the end that a more natural
effect will be secured.

When you have secured the desired result, you will have
your lights properly balanced, but be careful not to overdo
it. A harsh contrast such as results from the use of no
reflectors at all is preferable to the flatness of equal crossed
lights, although both extremes will be avoided by the care-
ful workman.

Mirrors. — For special effects, mirrors are used to pro-
vide the maximum of hard reflection. These are used prin-
cipally in securing back-light effects. The amateur will
often find a common hand-mirror quite serviceable. By
playing a reflection of the sun's rays from a mirror on the
side of an actress' head away from the lens, and by slightly
shaking the mirror during this time, a beautiful shimmer-
ing halo may be secured. Larger mirrors may be used to se-
cure a straight backlighting. The back-light not only
serves to add attractiveness to the scene, it also helps to
define the distance between the actor and the background,
providing a pseudo stereoscopic depth to the picture.

As a rule, in the Northern hemisphere the camera
should be pointed in a northerly direction, say from
northwest to northeast, providing there are no other im-
portant considerations which contraindicate this. This
gives us an approximately correct "plain" lighting. In a
properly lighted scene, any cast shadows should extend
neither to front nor rear, nor even straight out at the side,
but rather to one side and toward the rear. The shadow
should be at least two-thirds as long as the body which
casts it, but not more than twice as long. This serves as
a rough guide, not that the shadows of themselves are of
paramount importance, although they do play a part, but
because they serve as an index of proper lighting.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 89

Very long shadows indicate early or late hours and no
scenes should be made at these times except those meant
to portray these periods of the day. A vertical sun should
never be used unless it is desired to portray a burning hot
scene, such as a desert. Kemember, such effects are exag-
gerated in pictures.

The cameraman will play safe in keeping the sun over
one shoulder or the other during his early experience.

Light trickery might well be included with other tricks,
for with experience comes the ability to so light a scene
that its appearance is totally different from its appearance
under other conditions. However, such trick or "fancy"
lighting is nothing more than a carefully planned mixture
of two or more ordinary lightings. The manual control
of light belongs in the chapter dealing with artificial light
and it will be discussed further in that place.

So far we have considered exterior lighting with a bright
sun. It is a fact well known to amateurs that the sun never
shines, except when the cameras are all safely at home, so
it is quite important that we consider some of the prob-
lems which confront us when we have no sun.

First we have those hazy, dull days when even the most
familiar objects take on an appearance of mystery and
seem to slink away from sight, retreating into the obscuri-
ties of the haze. Upon such a day the still photographer
goes forth and makes masterpieces — or messes, as the plate
may turn out. We have three paths opened to us upon
such a day, we may take what may be a frankly record
shot of an autumn picnic, we may make the heavy shots
of our photo drama in which the villain stars, or Ave may
try our hand at artistic motion picture photography, but
in each case we must take into consideration the light,
both as illumination and lighting, its strength and direc-
tion of fall.

It may be said that there is no direction of fall, but this
is untrue. Even with a light so dull that there is no cast
shadow, we find that the most intense light comes from
that portion of the sky behind which the sun is obscured.
We work just the same as though we were working with
a bright sun in that direction, except that we need no re-

90 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

flectors. In fact, a magnesium flare will help out wonder-
fully on very dull days, as otherwise we should have a
lighting which would be entirely too flat for any satisfac-
tory rendering whatever, as far as good, technical photog-
raphy is concerned. But, we may take advantage of such
light to make motion films which show just this effect,
and if we work for this final effect we may expect satis-
factory results from any of the above mentioned fields of
motion photography.

In working under very black, threatening clouds, we can
secure ample exposure without using our largest aperture.
The exposure meters will all indicate stops of from f 2.5 to
1.5 for such conditions, but in fact we will use 5.6 or
smaller. Exposure meters are calculated to give us a full
exposure, which means an exposure which will show us
the object in all of its detail. But in a storm scene you
do not want this. Which storm scene appeals the more to
you, one in which you see a darkish-gray sky, a breeze
blowing garments and perhaps a few drops of rain falling,
or one which is dull and gloomy, in which objects are dimly
seen in silhouette only, and then against the sky? The
latter of course ! Kemember that the full exposure is not
necessarily the natural exposure. Our brains often see
more than do our eyes. Do not be afraid of underexposure
on such occasions.

If you live in a hilly country or one in which there is
only a little hill, and perhaps some trees and a brook (al-
most any city park will present these elements) try to
make a storm picture the next time a big thunderhead
comes rolling up.

Filters. — There will be, or at least should be, quite a
breeze blowing. Calculate your exposure, then put a 2x
yellow filter over the lens and give it from one-third to one-
half the exposure calculated for normal. Get your subject
on the crest of the hill, with the sky behind him. Secure
a position where the cloud mass appears the most im-
pressive, and still have the wind blowing across the field
of view. Then make the exposure with the filter and
diaphragm as indicated. The film will be underexposed
and the negative will look like a failure, yet you will be

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 91

pleasantly surprised when the film goes upon the screen.
This will look like a nasty, wet, cold storm, not the nice
little parlor storms so often shown upon the screen. When
you show a storm, make your audience uncomfortable by
the suggestion of inclement weather, when you show a
desert scene, make them fairly pant, arid when you show
winter make the spectators swear at the janitor for not
providing more heat. A motion picture which remains
only a picture when it is projected, is more or less a failure,
but one which can make the spectator feel that he is ac-
tually a part of the scene depicted, whether record, drama
or art study, is a success. This effect can be secured only
if you use the proper light for that scene, although of
course other factors enter into the case also.

(Courtesy Amateur Movie Makers)
Many oeautiful night effects can be secured by proper camera manipulation, but they
should be made like the scene above, with such exposure that the effect is unmistakably
that of a real night scene.

Night Effects. — We then have the night films to con-
sider. This is a subject which for some reason has an in-
tense fascination for the amateur and one which leads to
more dissappointment, possibly, than any other type of
subject.

There is no reason why any amateur who possesses
proper equipment should not make successful night pic-

92 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

tures, but first of all let us consider the subject itself.

There is a fascination for many people in the night itself.
There is a faint suggestion of mastery in the deep shadows,
and the lights, particularly in the cities where lights are
grouped in thousands, glitter with a brilliancy which
turns the most drab street into a veritable theatrical set-
ting. The factor which gives this appearance is not the
lights themselves, which are far inferior in intensity to
daylight, but the contrast between the light and the
shadow. If we are to reproduce this effect we must retain
the shadows, yet this is the very thing which most ama-
teurs try to eliminate.

In the still field there have been innumerable night pic-
tures which have been perfect representations of the scene
they are intended to depict. A study of these pictures will
show us one or two limited areas which are sharply lighted.
These areas give us the key to the picture. The rest of the
picture space is filled with shadow of varying intensity,
but in which no one object stands out sharply. So in
making night pictures we reverse the usual rule. We ex-
pose for the highlights and let the shadows take care of
themselves. By doing this we retain the deep shadow
which gives character to the night picture.

In working with subjects like this try to recall some of
Rembrandt's masterpieces. There we have shadow, and
more shadow and still deeper shadows. This effect gives
to these works their wonderful richness of tone. Light is
a thing of beauty, but to render it properly we must make
it appear as self luminous, a very difficult thing. Next to
this light in beauty are rich shadows, and these we can
easily secure by proper photographic illumination — or
rather the lack thereof. If you make a night shot in which
one object and only one is plainly discernible, and that
lighted by a unidirectional light, you will have a scene
which is quite convincingly a night scene.

This brings us to a consideration of the subject itself.
There must of course be enough positive illumination to
affect the emulsion during our exposure which is limited
to approximately l/35th of one second. This means that
an unusual amount of illumination must be provided,

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 93

such as is found in the more brightly lighted sections of
the larger cities. There are also some places such as
athletic and flying fields where there is sufficient illumina-
tion for making motion pictures at night. In any case it
is presumed that the cinematographer is equipped with an
exceptionally fast lens, such as the f 1.9 or the f 1.5. With
the f 1.5 lens and half normal motor speed, night films may
be made under conditions where the illumination is sur-
prisingly faint when compared with the light usually
thought necessary for this work.

By working in this way, success may be easily attained
in this work, but satisfaction only comes with a realiza-
tion of the type of film which most adequately represents
the illumination of night. Do not try to make a fully
illuminated scene after night-fall.

CHAPTER FIVE

Interior Lighting

We have seen before that in any photographic process
we must have both illumination and lighting, both chemical
and visible effects of light. As illumination bears a direct
ratio to the lens aperture used, we have our camera lenses
equipped with an iris diaphragm which controls the
amount of light permitted to pass through the lens. This
control is exerted with any kind of light either natural or
artificial. To this extent we control illumination. The
lighting is, as Ave have seen, susceptible to control only
through the medium of reflectors, screens and similar de-
vices. Even so we can alter the direction of fall of only
the reflected light, and we can control the intensity of the
light to only a limited extent.

In the consideration of interior lighting, we find con-
ditions which are almost diametrically opposed to these.
We still have the control of the amount of light entering
the lens, as we had in exterior work, but now we have full
control of the initial intensity of the light, full control of
its direction of fall, and to a great extent control over the
extent of diffusion. The only element lacking is a suffi-
cient maximum intensity of the light. We start with the
proposition that the minimum intensity of light is that in-
tensity which will enable us to secure a fully exposed
negative in a motion camera operated at normal speed. In
addition to this there are other considerations which are
of more or less importance.

Any sources of light used for illuminating interiors must
be capable of being handled with ease by the usual amateur.
This is of course not a vital consideration, but it must be
attained before such light sources will become popular.
You and I would do without artificial lighting rather than

96 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

worry ourselves with a heavy, ungainly lamp. Fortu-
nately, the modern light sources are so easily handled that
the illumination of an interior is a pleasure rather than
being a drudgery.

And then of course, these lamps must present an appear-
ance which is in keeping with the cameras and projectors
used in modern amateur cinematography.

In the consideration of initial illumination, we cannot
judge the source of light by its initial candlepower, al-
though this serves admirably as a basis of comparison of
similarly colored lights. Thus, in comparing white flame
arcs, the comparison of their candlepowers will give us a
definite conception of their comparative efficiency, when
used under similar circumstances. We cannot, however,
compare incandescent lights with arc lights upon the basis
of their relative, visual candlepower, because the in-
candescent is yellow and the arc a white light. The arc
will have more effect upon the film per candlepower than
will the incandescent light. Yellow light is comparatively
inactive from a photographic standpoint, except where
panchromatic film is used.

The most practical application we make of the estima-
tion of the intensity of the light is that used in calculat-
ing the proper exposure. It is evident that Ave must know
something, either directly or indirectly, of the intensity
of the light being used before we can even approximately
calculate the exposure. We may not consciously judge the
light as being of such and such a candlepower, but we do
judge it as requiring the use of some particular lens stop.

We have seen that we photograph objects by means of
the light reflected from the surface of such objects. It
follows therefore that the amount of light reflected from
any given surface is proportional to the amount of light
which falls upon it originally, as well as upon the reflect-
ing properties of the surface. Then if a definite amount
of light falls upon a group of objects, they will reflect
definite proportions of the original light in relation to
their power of reflection. Thus we see that through vary-
ing reflection we get the differentiation between any two
objects, while the total tonal scale of the reflected light de-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 97

termines the exposure. Thus the amount of light which
falls upon the subject has a very definite bearing upon the
lens aperture necessary to photograph this object at nor-
mal speed.

Intensity of Light. — We know that the intensity of any
light varies inversely as the square of its distance. Thus
if we have our light at two feet distance and move it to
six feet distance, or three times as far away, only one-
ninth as much light will fall upon the subject. This is
the second factor in judging the amount of usable light
reflected from any surface. We must then consider in-
tensity and space or distance. Naturally, as we have seen
before, the photographic exposure is determined, among
other factors, by the duration of the exposure of the film
to light. Here we have the time-space-intensity equation.
These are definite factors, the time and intensity being
fixed and the space having a definite bearing upon the cal-
culation. Thus if with a given light we can make success-
ful exposure at f 8 and we move that light twice as far
away we know that we must use four times as much light,
so we use stop f 4.

When the light is moved twice as far away, use one-
half the f value, with it three times as far away use one-
third and so forth. Thus moving the light three times as
far away would lead to the use of f 3 when f 9 had been
the proper light before moving the light.

The f number varies inversely as the distance of the
light from the subject.

We can now see that with a low initial light intensity
we should use a large lens aperture, and with a high in-
tensity light we should use a lens of small aperture. The
question now arises as to which combination is better. If
we have a light of ten thousand initial candlepower in-
tensity, which enables us to make a satisfactory negative
at f 3.5, it is evident that a light of twenty-thousand initial
candlepower would enable us to use an aperture whose
area is one-half that of the f 3.5. This would be roughly
f 5. Conversely, with a lens of approximately f 2.5 speed,
we could secure the same results using a light of approxi-
mately five thousand candlepower.

98 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

As modern lights reach as high an efficiency as one
thousand candlepower per ampere of current consumed,
we will assume that such is the case. Then the 5,000 c.p.
light would consume 5 amperes, and the 20,000 c.p. would
consume 20 amperes. The usual house current is equipped
with 25 ampere fuses, so that we could safely use 4 of the
5 ampere lights, or 2 ten ampere lights, while we could
safely use only one of the 20 ampere lights. Thus we see
that there is one decided advantage in using fast lenses
and lower intensity of illumination.

Arc Amperage. — Experience has shown us that the prac-
tical minimum amperages for arc lights to be used for
cinematographic purposes is eight amperes for primary
lights and 3 to 4 amperes for secondary lights. With a
pair of 8 or 10 ampere lights, cinematography of average
home groups in average interiors is possible at normal
speed using a lens aperture of f 3.5.

For the fullest possible control, two eight or ten ampere
lights, which can be safely used on the usual house line,
should be used. In such case, balancing is achieved by
variation of the distance between the individual lights and
the subject. As a rule then we may assume that for reasons
of economy and convenience the combination of low in-
tensity lights with high aperture lenses is preferable to
extremely high intensity lights and small aperture lenses.

There are also pictorial reasons for this. The usual in-
terior shot is made with one or more persons as the center
of interest. In the case of close-ups and semi close-ups,
the high aperture allows us to diffuse the background
while retaining abundant detail in the subject focussed
upon. At the same time, in full shots, the background is
so near the subject that full frame detail may be secured
with f 2. Any diffusion which persists in such cases is
not objectionable.

If any one lens aperture can be said to be preferable
to another, under all conditions, we may say that the f 2
is the most generally useful aperture for interior work
with the lens of from 20 to 25 millimeter focus (one inch).
It is possible to make use of this stop under most con-
ditions by the proper manipulation of the lights.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 99

The manipulation of the lights is in itself an art, and
one which cannot be taught in a short time nor by the use
of a few words. We may be able to point out the path,
but each experimenter must find his way along this path
to the best of his individual ability.

Lighting is not an exact science, but like all arts it is
based upon comparatively simple elements. The artistry
lies in the proper synthesis of these elements.

We may consider any solid object as being more or less
cubical in shape, that is, it has six major surfaces, i.e.,
top, bottom, front, rear, left side and right side. We may
illuminate such an object by a single beam of light in
such a manner that the beam will fall squarely upon any
one of these surfaces. This gives us six light direction
elements.

Synthesis of Light. — The subject of light synthesis is
neither difficult nor complex. In fact we do not actually
mix different light beams, but Ave make use of a single
light placed in a position midway between two of the
primary positions. At times we place it in a position
where it partakes of three elementary positions. Thus,
the "plain" or "straight" lighting beloved of artists and
portrait photographers is a combination of a high light, a
side light and a front light. Starting the lamp from the
position occupied by the subject move it straight away
from the front of the subject, then to one side, and finally
above the level of the subject. This last move will bring
the light to its final position to provide the proper plain
lighting.

As a first step in the consideration of various lights,
let us establish the directions. The front of any sub-
ject is the side which is directed toward the lens and
hence the side which will appear in the completed photo-
graph. Above and below are of course used in the familiar
sense. Eight and left refer to the photographer's right and
left as he faces the subject. Thus "right" actually refers
to the subject's left, but as it is the right of the cameraman
we use that term. Back means the side hidden from the
camera lens.

The first position which we shall consider is the front

100

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 101

lighting. This is secured by having the light coming from
directly behind the camera. This is known as flat light-
ing for a reason which Ave shall see. In the consideration
of exterior lighting we considered a more or less diffuse
light, but now that we are dealing with highly concen-
trated lights, we may well consider a few more details
of lighting as a delineator of form.

We determine form as outline and contour. If we
could perceive outline only, a sphere would appear to us
as a flat disc. It is evident therefore that the play of
light and shadow which was mentioned in the preced-
ing chapter is a thing of considerable importance. To fully
understand this place a sphere, such as a celluloid ball or
similar object upon a support and illuminate this with a
spot light. Better effects will be secured if this ball is
white in color.

We will at once perceive the outline which is circular.
Moreover we will notice a spot of intense highlight on one
part of the ball. This spot marks the point at which the
rays of light emanating from the light source are reflected
to the eye. As we move, the position of this point changes,
so we see that its position is established by the positions
of both light and camera (or the eye). From this spot
the surface of the sphere becomes progressively darker,
giving an appearance of roundness. This appearance
naturally depends upon this gradation of the light tone,
therefore :

The quality of any photograph, moving or still, depends
upon the preservation of the tonal quality of the original.

Incidentally this requires an exposure which very
closely approximates the correct exposure.

Now if we stick a lump of modelling wax upon the sur-
face of this ball, we at once get a sharp cast shadow upon
the surface of the ball and a second series of graded tones
upon the lighted surface of this wax. These two things at
once tell us the approximate shape of the wax lump in a
manner which is easily reproduced in our photograph.
Therefore :

Photographic representation of form is secured by re-
production of both cast shadows and graduated tones.

102

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Then, photography deals with shadows exclusively. A
pure highlight means nothing in photography except as it
is given form by circumscribing shadow tints.

LOW

rs.

HIGH

TROUT

A^^V

BACK

* ©

PLMN

<§)

SlBE

These diagrams illustrate the positions of subjects, camera and light used in making

the six lighting studies shown in this chapter. The left hand portion of each diagram

indicates the floor plan while the right hand portion indicates vertical positions. FL

is the floor line, T the table upon which the cast was placed for photography.

The third consideration is one of modification. When
we added cast shadows to aid in the identification of
form, we added areas of blackness. Pure black, like pure
white has no place in a photograph except in severely
limited areas. We must retain our cast shadows, but we
must also illuminate the area covered by these shadows

103

104 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

with a light of inferior intensity, so that while maintain-
ing clearly the form of the shadow, we can also see the de-
tail of the surface upon which the shadow is cast. This
gives us "luminous" shadows. In the photograph this
effect may be secured without in the least affecting the
effectiveness of the shadow itself. The light used for this
purpose is known as the secondary light.

Now let us return to a consideration of our front light-
ing. Here we have a primary light only, and one which is
so placed that cast shadows are eliminated. Our percep-
tion of form is limited to that disclosed by the tonal grada-
tion only. Thus we perceive the "roundness" or general
spherical shape of the features themselves, but we have
nothing by which to judge the "elevation" or degree of
protuberance of the features from the general level of
the face. Thus we have a pseudo-likeness which appears
singularly lacking in depth. In other words it appears to
be flat, and so striking is this effect that we call such
lighting a flat lighting. It is to be avoided above all things,
and it is the one primary lighting which can never be
successfully used, alone.

In the consideration of other forms of primary light-
ing it will be noted that each one has some individual
characteristic, giving to the subject some definite ex-
pression or appearance. In mixed lightings, the subject
will be given to some degree the characteristic of the pre-
dominating primary lighting.

Let us consider the side-light. This is a strong light,
and brings the contours of the subject into strong relief,
producing in fact an exaggerated depth. You will also
notice that this light makes the subject appear narrower
and longer. A round faced person lighted with a strong
side light predominating will apparently have a narrower
face than in real life. We see here the power of the shadow
in producing the illusion of the third dimension. This
lighting can be used in certain scenes where strong light-
ing is needed, such as a person standing in a door or
window with the light shining through the opening. The
shaded side of the actor will then blend into the shadows
producing a striking effect.

105

106 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

When we move the light to a position above the subject,
we note a far more striking effect. The eye sockets ap-
pear more deeply sunken, while the features are lowered,
the face becoming more wide and short. This lighting
brings out an expression of calm, rugged, self reliance.
This may be a point to remember in your future work.
Also note that much of the nobility of the face is lost,
but there is little if any actual loss of character. Of course
the nature of this character is changed, but the face re-
mains as individual as ever.

When we lower the light to a point immediately below
the face a great change is effected. The face still seems
broad and short, but the expression is now wistful and
pleading, a sorrowful countenance indeed. In many cases
this low light brings out a weird and mysterious aspect
in an entire scene.

Finally we have the plain lighting, where the primary
light is placed in front of, above and at one side of the
subject. Here and here only do we receive an exact mental
impression of the actual appearance of the original. Here
we see a photograph for which an entirely different sub-
ject might have been posed. It is for this reason that a
cast was used instead of a living model. With the inani-
mate cast it must be evident that the striking differences
in the various poses is due to the lighting used and to
that alone.

It may be remarked in passing that the backlighting is
not shown in this series, but a side-back light substituted.
This has many of the characteristics of the side light as
will be seen. The reason for this substitution is that the
backlight is effective only when there is some transparent
or translucent substance between the light and the camera,
such as light fabric, hair and so forth. This substance
serves to refract the rays of the backlight, giving us the
characteristic halo of that light. A living model has been
used for the purpose of illustrating the backlight. It can
rarely be used alone, as without some front lighting the
subject would appear as a black silhouette surrounded by
a glaring halo or brilliant light.

Let us now consider our first interior scene. For the

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 107

sake of simplicity Ave shall use but a single actor. Try
to pose this actor in such a manner that no pieces of
furniture or other incidental objects will cast confusing
shadows. Keep the "set" and "properties" within the
simplest possible limits.

Backlighting is very effective when we have a feminine subject with soft hair and a
suggestion of diaphanous drapery to refract the light.

Set the camera upon a tripod, and adjust it to take in
the field you wish to include in this, your first shot. We
will assume that you are using a single lamp. The camera
set up is secured by the use of the ordinary incandescents

108 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

used for normal room lighting. Limit the field to about 4
feet high by 6 wide. This will give you approximately
24 square feet of included surface in the plane which is
occupied by your subject. To secure the maximum results
from your lamp, set it in such position that its entire out-
put is confined to practically this area. You can control
this to a certain extent by properly setting the "wings"
or side reflectors of the lamp, which serve to concentrate
the light to a slight degree. For most purposes, you may
consider the effective angle of the arc as 90 degrees.

For a four by six area you should place the lamp about
three feet from the subject to utilize the original 90 de-
grees, but as this is too close for practical purposes, you
will move the lamp until it is from six to eight feet away
from the subject, and close the side reflectors until every
possible ray of light is falling upon the subject.

Let us assume that this subject is an adult, standing,
and you are making a semi close-up, cutting at the waist.
The average height of the adult may be taken as five feet
and eight inches. Your lamp will be placed about five feet
in front of the subject, six feet to one side and about seven
feet from the floor. This will give the side-front-top light
desired. Now hang a sheet or Westphalen reflector in such
a position that the light from the lamp is reflected upon
the side of the subject which is in the shadow. Arrange
this reflector so that the deepest shadow is illuminated to
such an extent that the detail is barely visible when viewed
through a monotone filter.

The camera is now placed from twelve to fifteen feet
away, and focussed upon the subject. The exact position
of the subject in the frame will have to be determined by
trial and error, moving the camera in different directions
until the image of the subject occupies a position and has
a size which meets the approval of the cinematographer.

The final step is the determination of the exposure. For
interior work, when a rapid calculation is desired as well
as an accurate one, the value of the photometric meter of
the Cinophot type cannot be overestimated. This meter
will give the exposure just as rapidly and just as ac-
curately for interior as for exterior work.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 109

When the diaphragm has been set, the/ lamps are reset,
that is the arc is regenerated, and the exposure is made
in the usual manner.

When two lights are used, the reflector may be replaced
by a lamp of inferior intensity, or it may be replaced by a
second lamp of equal intensity located at a greater dis-
tance from the subject. In balancing lights, remember
that the intensity of any light varies inversely as the square
of the distance from the surface illuminated.

In addition to these primary and secondary light sources,
a spot light will be needed. The spot light is used for
backlighting, for accent lighting and for building up the
illumination in any desired place. In backlighting it is
placed behind the subject. In case this is to be used while
the subject is in motion, this light is placed outside the
lines and an operator placed beside it whose duty is to
keep the "spot" upon the rear side of the subject's head.
The fact that the light comes from one side as well as from
the rear does not spoil the effect. In fact, it in many cases
enhances this effect. This is one of the best known light-
ing effects for differentiating the plane of the subject and
the plane of the background.

Accent lighting consists of accenting, or emphasizing
any particular part of a scene by means of additional con-
centrated light. The spot light usually throws a circular
area of light with more or less sharply defined edges. This
means that any object illuminated by the spot will be
brightly illuminated, and if the exposure is calculated for
this intensity of illumination, other portions of the scene
will be slightly underexposed. Thus we have the subject
of greatest interest standing out sharply against a slightly
dull background.

The spot is also useful for special effects, such as full
moon spots, and similar "fancy" lightings, but as there is
no limit to the number of such lightings which may be
devised, we can hardly take space here to go deeply into
this subject. The ingenuity of the cameraman will enable
him to devise new lighting effects once he has become
sufficiently accustomed to artificial light to feel at ease
when handling it.

110

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 111

Emotional Effect of Lighting. — It should be remem-
bered, however, that any lighting will have an effect upon

the picture which is entirely aside from either illumina-
tion or lighting. This may be called the sympathetic effect
of lighting. Reference to the illustrations of this chapter
as well as individual experimentation will show that with
any given subject the expression, the "atmosphere" of the
entire scene may be changed by changing the lighting. By
fully understanding this we will find that lighting can
aid us to a very great extent, or place an almost unsur-
mountable obstacle in our path in "putting over" a scene,
more particularly if this scene has an emotional "punch."

The basic law of art is unity, so no matter whether wre
are making purely artistic films, or whether we are making
the most elementary photo-dramas, we must remember
that everything entering into the production of one par-
ticular scene must either aid in producing the necessary
"atmosphere" for that scene or be eliminated. This in-
cludes the lighting as well as other details. If the scene
is one depicting sorrow, let us have gloom,, but not a gloom
of heavy black shadows, rather a flat lighting, without ex-
cessive contrast, and then let us give it an exposure slightly
on the under side. This, however would be too flat, so let
us use the spot to introduce a bright spot of sunshine fall-
ing through a window, or introduce it in some similar
natural manner. This small area of brightness will add
life to the picture while increasing the effect of the general
tone of the scene through contrast.

Let your lighting reflect the spirit of the scene!

Would you depict a scene of mystery by fully lighting
every detail and then having your actors slink about like
children playing Indian in the sunlight? I trust not!
Rather you use just enough primary illumination to make
one mass distinguishable from another. You see shadows
rather than actors. Then, to heighten the effect you shoot
a spot into a face or even flood the entire scene with a pure
side or high-side light.

We might go on indefinitely considering the various
treatments which might be used in connection with the
lights, but as long as the cinematographer is careful to

112 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

use a lighting which is appropriate for the spirit of the
scene in hand, he will not go far wrong.

The lamp is the brush with which the cinematographer
paints his picture. The artist-cinematographer is not con-
tent to record things as they are; he wants to show them
as they impress him. This means that he must add some-
thing intangible to the physical form of the subject re-
corded upon the film. He must capture spirit and emotion
and imprison them upon his celluloid ribbon, and for this
purpose, nothing is more efficient than the lamp.

It will be seen then, that of all accessories offered for
amateur use, there is not one which can really surpass in
importance the arc lamp. Not only does it simplify the
problem of exposure, not only does it permit the amateur
to make motion pictures within his home, not only does it
open the evening to this fascinating pastime, but it also
places in his hand an artistic implement whose possibili-
ties are unlimited.

Having considered the use of artificial light and artificial
light sources, let us now consider the specific mechanisms
which produce the most satisfactory artificial illuminant
for amateur cinematography, the arc light.

Many amateurs cannot understand how, using only a
small arc lamp it is possible to secure sufficient illum-
ination, to make motion picture film. The lights used do
not of course compare with sunlight in intensity, but this
is not necessary. In the first place, we use only a small
portion of the colors which compose sunlight, in photog-
raphy, perhaps one-tenth of the light which affects our
eye, while the artificial light, especially the arc gives us
a light whose color is almost entirely used in the photo-
graphic process. Again sunlight illuminates an immense
area. We can photograph objects miles away if they
are large enough to be seen. With the artificial light we
illuminate a strictly limited area, so that while sunlight
may be millions of times as strong as our little arc, we
can make use of both. To fully understand this, we must
ignore the total intensity of sunlight and consider only
the photographic power of the light which is reflected into
the camera by one unit of surface, say one square inch.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

113

By using this as a basis of comparison, we find that our
small portable lights will give such a reflection not greatly
inferior to sunlight. The fact remains that satisfactory
amateur cinematography may be carried on indoors by
the light furnished by a single one of the small, modern
cinema arc lights. Two are better of course, as we have
seen, but one will serve.

Let us compare the arc, which is the most common
amateur cinema 'light, with daylight.

ARC

Constant in intensity giving
us a stable factor for calcu-
lation of exposure.

Ready for use at any time.

Intensity varied to known
degree by varying distance
between subject and light,
or by adding more units.

Position relative to subject
under control, allowing the
best illumination for each
particular subject.

Limited area of source al-
lowing more definite model-
ling.

Vertical angle secured and
maintained at will of cam-
eraman, giving good, effec-
tive lighting.

Allows the busy man to
make films during that
period which is almost his
only leisure, the evening.

During rainy, cold and
stormy weather the arc en-
ables the cinematographer
to go right ahead with his
work.

Stop motion, cartoon work,

DAYLIGHT

Variable intensity making
necessary a complete ex-
posure computation for each
exposure.

Have to wait f or ' favorable
light or risk spoiling shot.

Intensity not under control,
but naturally erratic.

Proper illumination only
possible by changing posi-
tion of subject with regard
to the sun, which often spoils
a desired effect.

Diffused light which must
be screened or reflected to
secure proper modelling.

Vertical angle constantly
changing which will give a
changing light effect, which
is not too good.

Limits film production to
daylight, and even then to
periods when suitable light
is present.

Bad weather results in the
camera being shelved.

Daylight is too variable to

114

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

animation, time condensa-
tion and in fact almost all
trick and scientific work
can be properly performed
only with artificial light.

The arc is practical for use
only with limited areas, the
exact size of such area
changing with the type and
number of lamps employed.

Artificial light essential for
title work.

permit exposures at prede-
termined times through an
extended period.

No limit to area included in
photograph other than me-
chanical limits imposed by
intervening, objects.

Daylight entirely unsuited
for title work.

So we find in the artificial light, a source of light which
while limited in intensity is quite adequate for our pur-
poses, and which is at all times under full control. The
advantages are obvious when compared with the sun, which
while supplying an unlimited amount of light (some-
times ! ) , is erratic, capricious, and absolutely out of our
control ! The conclusion is obvious. The amateur who
wants to make good films, the amateur who wants to make
home films, the amateur who has dramatic aspirations,
and the one who wants to add art to his work will all make
full use of the artificial light. Only in making frankly ex-
terior shots, which rarely have the value to us of the in-
terior shot, can daylight be preferred to artificial. Of
course, we do not mean to say that outdoor cinematography
is a failure. Far from it ! But the amateur never knows
more than half of the enjoyment which his camera can
provide until he has worked indoors with artificial light.

The Arc Light. — The arc light is the most practical
source of light for the commercial or industrial cine-
matographer as well as for the amateur. For this rea-
son a few words regarding the arc as a type will not
be amiss. If we attach two sticks of carbon or metal
to the ends of the two wires which form an electrical
circuit, touch the ends of these rods and then pull them
apart, the current will continue to flow across the air
gap. When the rods touch, the resistance to the pas-
sage of the current at the point of contact causes an
intense heat to be generated. This heats the air and
permits the current to flow across this hot air gap up

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 115

to a certain limit. Beyond this limit, the force of the
current will not carry the flow across the gap and the
arc is broken. This simple form of lamp is not prac-
tical, because without a resistance to act as a gate, such
a tremendous amount of current would be drawn across
the arc that the connecting wires would be fused.
When we add the resistance, this acts as a gate allow-
ing only a certain amount of current to flow. This pro-
tects the line. In addition, fuse plugs are used of a
sufficient capacity to take care of the rated current of
the lamp. Arcs as used for motion photography by the
commercial and amateur worker usually have a maxi-
mum pull of twenty or twenty-five amperes. They
should only be used on lines where wiring has been in-
stalled which will carry such a load. A twenty ampere
lamp will often blow twenty ampere fuses, so twenty-
five or thirty ampere fuses should be used. For use on
ordinary lines a ten ampere draw is provided by a
switching arrangement. This cuts down the light out
of all proportion to the current, ten amperes usually
giving about one-fourth the amount of light furnished
by the same lamp on twenty amperes. For this reason
manufacturers have devoted their attention to produc-
ing a lamp which would give adequate light from a ten
ampere current.

It has been found that the material used in making
the arc rods has much to do with the photographic
power of the light. This has led to experimentation
with the result that these rods are now made of a
special carbon. Through the center of this carbon rod
is a hole. This hole is filled with a compound which
gives an intensely white flame. In this manner, a small
ten ampere lamp which may be plugged into any or-
dinary house socket will actually give a more powerful
light than was obtained from the old time, heavy cur-
rent lamps using solid carbons. So we find this type of
lamp divided into two large classes, the double range
arc which gives roughly 5,000 candlepower on ten am-
peres and 18,000 to 20,000 candlepower on the twenty
ampere pull; and the amateur lamps which give from
10,000 to 12,000 candlepower on a ten ampere pull. The
latter type of lamps are made so that even at the instant
of making the arc the current consumption will not rise

116 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

above ten amperes. Such lamps may be safely operated
on any ordinary house current.

A simple arc will gradually increase the current con-
sumption as the carbons are consumed and the path of
the arc becomes longer and longer. In the older type
of lamp screw controls were arranged so that the
operator could manually move the carbons closer to-
gether as they burned away, but this required almost
constant attention which would greatly decrease their
value to the photographer. Moreover the old time arc
spluttered and spit and had a constantly varying light
intensity. This was not of so much moment in still
photography, but it is fatal in motion photography with
its 1/32 second maximum exposure.

The next improvement was a magnetic arrangement
whereby the arc constantly renewed itself. When the
arc grew to a certain length the upper carbon would
drop upon the lower and be jerked away again instant-
ly, renewing the arc. This arrangement is still used in
some lamps, but not in the most modern forms.

The modern photographic arc lamp has special car-
bons which give an intensely white light, with extreme
photographic power. They are so arranged that the arc
is started manually, after which the arc will burn for
a predetermined time and then go out, unless renewed
manually before the automatic extinction takes place.
Four or five minutes, the usual length of time for these
lamps to burn, is ample for making an exposure of a
single scene, with time for focussing and final checkup
on the setup before the actual exposure. In case the
lamp is left burning it will be extinguished automatic-
ally, which is in itself a valuable feature. Moreover
these lamps burn with very little noise and without
flickering, or spluttering.

Cameralite. — One of the most outstanding lamps for
amateur use is the Cameralite made by the widely known
firm of M. J. Wolil. This lamp is made of sheet metal, and
shaped like a rollfilm camera. It measures 314 x 6 x 11
inches and weighs six pounds. While it is rated at 8,000
candlepower for use over an area not to exceed fourteen
square feet, the lamp will deliver about 12,000 candle-
power. The writer has used it very successfully with an

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 117

f 3.5 lens for making motion pictures at normal speed, with
results which were satisfactory in every way. This is one
of the first lamps to be developed which could be safely
plugged into any house current yet which would in itself
supply sufficient illumination for motion picture work.
For this reason it is proving very popular.

This lamp has several unique features. The entire equip-
ment, including extra carbons, cord, tripod adaptor and
table stand all pack within the lamp itself so that no carry-
ing case is needed. The lamp of itself is the case. This en-
ables the photographer to carry his lamp into a house with-
out giving the appearance that he is moving in for a
month's visit.

The usual objections to the use of an arc by amateurs
are that the lamp is likely to blow fuses or even endanger
the wiring of an ordinary house current, it must be con-
stantly adjusted or else the automatic feed kicks and splut-
ters at just the wrong instant, the lamp spits and flickers,
and when the carbons burn down, the lamp must be allowed
to cool before renewing them. All of these objections have
been overcome in the Cameralite. With its intense light
it does not pull more than ten amperes, even when making
the arc. It gives a pure, steady, flickerless light for four
minutes without attention, and this time may be extended
at any time by manual control at such time that the adjust-
ment will not interfere with making the picture.

When the two doors are opened, the cord is seen in the
case, this is lifted out. Then we find a supply of carbons,
the table stand, the tripod adaptor and the carbon connec-
tor as well as the handle for manual support. This handle
is screwed into the socket provided for it. The table stand
is opened and locked in position with the thumb screw pro-
vided, and set up on the table. The lamp is now placed
on this stand by inserting the stand rod in a hole bored in
the handle. This supports the lamp firmly upon the table.
Two short carbons are now inserted in the lower carbon
sockets. Two long carbons are inserted in the holes in the
top of the lamp. The fibre control handle which protrudes
a short distance from the side of the lamp is depressed.
This allows the upper carbons to fall into place, resting

118 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

upon the points of the lower carbons after which the lever
is released. The carbon connector is now used to connect
the tops of the upper carbons. The connecting cord is
plugged into the house line and into the light. This com-
pletes the setup. The lamp is now ready for use.

Turn on the current. Nothing will happen. Now de-
press the fibre control handle. The carbons will drop and
will spark somewhat. Before allowing the control handle
to rise, look away from the carbons for the brilliant,
actinic light is very painful to the eyes. Allow the control
handle to rise slowly. As it rises the arc will form, flood-
ing the room with a dazzling white light.

The lamp will now burn fur approximately four minutes,
when it will go out. Should a longer period of light be de-
sired, all that is necessary is that the control handle be de-
pressed again. This will dim the light only during the ac-
tual depression of the handle. The light will then continue
to burn for four minutes from the time of the last de-
pression of the handle. Thus a continuous light may be
maintained.

The Cameralite is a valuable and appropriate addition
to the amateur cine equipment.

{Courtesy Bass Camera Co.)
The Traut-Minima "pocket" arc light.

•

Traut-Minima Arc. — Another amateur arc which is
proving very popular is the Traut-Minima pocket arc. The
description is not a figure of speech for the lamp can ac-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 119

tually be placed in an ordinary coat pocket. It is made not
unlike a metal cigarette case, with a fibre back. When
closed the lamp itself measures 4 x 5 x % inches. It is pro-
vided with a long connecting cord. When opened, the lamp
measures over all projections including fresh carbons, 4 x
5% x 6 inches. The carbons are cored, white flame photo-
graphic carbons, arranged parallel to each other. These
carbons are 5/32 x2y2 inches, about the size of the lead
in a drawing pencil.

The resistance used is a separate unit which measures
2% inches in diameter by 3% inches long. The 110 volt
house line is connected to the resistance box, and this in
turn is connected to the lamp. Special connectors make it
impossible to connect the lamp directly to the house line.
When the current is on, a red pyralin button is unscrewed
from the top of the case and withdrawn. This button holds
a piece of carbon about an inch long. This is placed in con-
tact with the points of the two lamp carbons and then
removed by pulling downward across the ends of the car-
bons. This generates the arc. The light is of approxi-
mately 5,000 candlepower, at a line pull of 4 to 5 amperes.
These lamps may be mounted upon tripods or upon special
stands. This lamp is a German product, but is distributed
by the Bass Camera Company.

The Minima is purposely made in a small size so that
two or more may be used in place of the more usual single
lamp. To encourage a more highly professional style of
lighting in amateur work, these lamps are offered in spe-
cial sets of three. This gives a primary light of about
12,000 candlepower for use either as a unit or separated
for floodlighting and a third or secondary light for balanc-
ing. With these three lights some very good lighting
effects indeed can be secured.

These lights are thoroughly dependable and have proven
satisfactory in the hands of many amateurs.

Little Sunny Arc. — Another lamp of similar design
but greater capacity is the Little Sunny, a Westphalen
product. This lamp also uses parallel carbons, but these
are 6% millimeter by 10 inch carbons of the white flame
photographic type. The lamp folds into a very compact

120 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

package. When folded the lamp measures 2% x 5 x 7 in-
cluding the connecting cord. The resistance is built into
the lamp body itself.

This lamp is generated in the same manner as the
Minima. A carbon rod with an insulated handle is brought
into contact with the points of the lamp carbons and then
drawn downward across the ends of the carbons. This
should be done rather slowly as the generated flame must
heat the air surrounding the arc to make possible the pas-
sage of the flame across the carbon tips.

The Little Sunny draws only eight amperes and gives
approximately one thousand candlepower per ampere of
current consumed. In fact most of the modern, small, high
intensity arcs for amateur use will deliver this approxi-
mate output. Any arc operated at less than the rated volt-
age will suffer a drop in initial intensity entirely out of
proportion to the drop in current pressure.

The Little Sunny is provided with a wooden handle for
hand use, but like the other lamps of this type, it is also
arranged for stand use, a suitable stand being supplied by
the manufacturer. This is a feature of this type of lamp,
and which applies to all three of the lamps discussed so
far. The lamp may be held in the hand and thus supported
in any unusual position, enabling the operator to secure
just the effect he desires. The use of two of these lamps
is recommended, but in case the operator wishes to use
one only, the same manufacturer supplies a special reflec-
tor which, by means of its stand, may be placed in any
desired position, providing secondary light by reflection.
This enables the cinematographer to make double use of
his light but of course the intensity is not as great as when
a second lamp is used for the secondary lighting. This
reflector, it may be added, makes an unusually serviceable
reflector for exterior work and one which is far more com-
pact than the compo-board type described in the preced-
ing chapter.

This reflector has a surface 36 x 58 inches and is supplied
with a six foot stand. When packed for transport the pack-
age measures 18 inches long by two inches thick.

The arc lamps which have just been described are essen-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 121

tially amateur cinematographic lamps. In actual practice
they are very widely used by professional photographers
as well as by industrial and commercial cinematographers,
and they give full satisfaction in such work. They are
amateur equipment in the sense that they are simply made,
will serve a great variety of purposes, are compact, light in
weight and comparatively inexpensive.

They are made to be used as either hand or stand lamps.
Any of the three may be safely used in any ordinary home,
and for short periods any number may be used provided the
total consumption does not exceed twenty amperes.

They give an extraordinary photographic power in com-
parison with the current consumed. They are the safest
of lights, in fact all that is required for extinguishing the
arc is a sharply blown breath against the arc. The parallel
arcs may be extinguished by swinging the lamp to one side
with a quick motion. Yet, in spite of this, they will burn
in any desired position, may be moved about to secure the
best possible lighting effect and are thoroughly flexible.

(Courtesy Halldorson Co.)
The Halldorson amateur cinema arc light partially folded.

Double Range Arcs. — The next class of lamp is the ad-
vanced amateur or semi-professional type which is a
miniature reproduction of the twin-arcs used in the large
studios. These lamps are made for stand support and are
not designed for hand use. They are usually made in the
double-range type. That means that by a special switch-

122 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

ing arrangement the lamp may be operated on either of
two amperages. In case a lighting circuit is available
which will not stand the full drain, the lower current pull
is used at a sacrifice of initial illumination. These lamps
usually consume 10-20, 12%-25 or 15-30 amperes. In any
case, only the higher consumption, i.e., 20, 25 or 30 gives
the full efficiency of the lamp. These lamps are ideal for
commercial and industrial work in the studio, but should
not be used on the high current pull by amateurs, unless
an electrician certifies the electric installation to be heavy
enough to bear the current drain of the specific lamp used.
In case the circuit is certified for one or two lamps, do not
think this evidence that it will stand three or four. Find
out from your electrician just what current drain the cir-
cuit will stand and then keep the total amperage of all
lamps used within this limit.

There are innumerable lamps of this type being man-
ufactured, and new ones appear every day, so we shall
discuss only some typical styles.
THE GELB SPECTRO-SUNSHINE LAMP

This lamp lies midway between the type just de-
scribed and the advanced amateur type, in that it is
small, compact, may be hand held or used upon tripod.
It may be packed "hot" immediately after use through
the ingenious design of the lamp. Various types of
carbons are supplied, including ultra violet for use with
quartz lenses in ultra rapid photography.
Size— In case 6*4 x 10y2 x 12i/2

In double case (Two lamps) 6*4 x 14 x 22
Weight — Single case 16 pounds
Double case 32 pounds
Tripod 3 pounds
Stand — 7 feet maximum, tripod style, also low table
stand

Type: — Twin arc

Voltage— 100-125 A. C. or D. C.
Amperes — 10 and 20
Candlepower — 18,000 on 20 amperes
Carbons — % x 12 upper
% x 4 lower
Both white flame photographic

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 123

Diffuser — Ground pyrex glass integral with casing
Tilt — Vertical or 30 degree tilt
Operation — Automatic for five minutes
Case — Metal, black crystallized enamel. Arcs com-
pletely enclosed and dustless. Entire front hinged
Connecting cord supplied

THE WOHL DUPLEX JUNIOR

Size— In case about 23 x 12 x 8

Weight — Complete 26% pounds

Height of Stand — 6% feet, maximum

Type — Twin arc

Voltage— 100 to 125 A. C. or D. C.

Amperes, D. C. — 10 and 20

Candlepower — 18,000 maximum

Upper Carbon — 10 m/m x 10 inch star core, white

flame

Lower Carbon — 10 m/m x 4 inch star core, white flame

Diffuser — Tracing linen 20 x 20 inches

Cord — 20 feet cable with connector

Operation — Approximately 4 minutes burning after

arc generation.
AUTOMATIC WOHLITE

This is a fully automatic arc lamp of the highest type

and is a general favorite with advanced amateurs, ama-
teur producers and industrial cinematographers.

Size— In case 23% x 14 x 8V2

Weight — Complete, 36 pounds

Height of Stand — 6V2 feet maximum with folding

stand

Type — Twin-arc in series

Voltage— 100 to 125 A. C. or D. C.

Amperes — 10 or 20

Candlepower — On high amperage, 18,000

CARBONS — 10 m/m., x 10 inch for upper, same 4 inches

long for lower, both star core, white flame

Diffuser — 20 x 20 inch tracing linen

Reflector — 9 x 9 inch

Operation — Fully automatic from arc generation until

carbon is consumed.
THE HALLDORSON CINEMA ARC LAMP

This lamp is made by the well known firm of Hall-

dorson. It is their arc lamp made for amateur use par-
ticularly.

124

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

It is so arranged in the leather covered case of in-
sulated wood that the case is opened to serve as reflec-
tor and lamp support. It is placed upon the stand
with the two halves of the case opened. In transport,
the accessories are placed inside the case which is then
closed and resembles a neat over-night bag. No extra
carrying case is necessary.

{Courtesy Halldorson Co.)
The Halldorson amateur cinema arc light set up for use.

Size— Closed, 5 x 11% x 14i/2

Weight — Complete, 23 pounds

Type — Twin arc

Voltage— 110-114 A. C. or D. C.

Amperes — 10 or 20 (Double range)

Candlepower — On high range, about 18,000

Carbons — Upper 3/8 x 12, lower 3/8 x 4, both Photo

White Flame, cored

Diffuser — Ground glass to replace the standard clear

glass spark shield

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 125

Cord — 15 feet heavy cord with connector.
Operation — Semi-automatic, burning four to five min-
utes after each generation.
THE LEOTY PORTABLE.

This lamp is different from most of the portable
types of lamp now on the market in that it uses a single
arc instead of two arcs in series. The manufacturers
claim greater efficiency due to larger separation of the
carbons. The lamp gives satisfaction in the hands of
commercial photographers and amateur cinematog-
raphers.

Weight — Complete, 18 pounds
Type — Single arc
Voltage— 105-115 A. C. or D. C.
Amperes — 12i/2 to 25 and 17i/2 to 35
Candlepower — 12,000 and 25,000 maxima
Carbons — 3/8 x 12, white flame, cored

DlFFUSER — Cloth

Cord — Connecting cord supplied

Operation — Automatic from generation until carbons

are consumed
THE PERKINS DA-LITE

This is a twin-arc lamp of the usual type, and one

which is well made and which will give full satisfaction.

The three Perkins lights listed here have been widely

used and are greatly liked by amateur cinematogra-

phers as well as commercial photographers and indus-
trial cinematographers.

Size— Folded— 4% x 8% x 13

Weight — 9% pounds

Type — Twin arc

Voltage— 100-125 A. C. or D. C.

Amperes — 10

Candlepower — Approximately 10,000

Carbons — 8 m/m x 12 inch, white flame

Cord — Supplied with lamp

Operation — Automatic

Remarks — Made particularly for use in groups of two

or more lamps in amateur cinematography
THE PERKINS JUNIOR

Weight — 23 pounds

Type — Twin arc

Voltage— 100-125

126 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Amperes — 12 and 20 D. C. or A. C. — 60 cycle
Candlepower — Maximum about 18,000
CARBONS — 3/8 inch x 12 inch, white flame
Diffuser — Cloth
Cord— 20 feet long
Operation — Fully automatic

Remarks — Automatic stand locks at any height from
30 inches to 7% feet
THE PERKINS LITTLE GIANT.

This is an unusual type of hand arc lamp. It may
be used for both general lighting or for accent lighting
in close-ups and other similar work. It is a special pur-
pose lamp whose value will be recognized by all
workers.

Size: — Convenient for holding in the hand
Weight— 2 V2 pounds
Type — Single arc
Voltage— 100-125 A. C. or D. C.
Amperes — 15

Candlepower — About 12,000
Carbons — White flame
Cord — Supplied
Operation — Manual

Remarks — Special type of commercial lamp well
adapted for amateur cinematography

There is very little choice among the lamps offered
except as to type. Of the two types, the first group of
low amperage, high candlepower, portable lamps are
very attractive to amateurs and all three have been used
by the writer with the fullest possible satisfaction. The
second group of higher amperage and lower compara-
tive candlepower lamps are suited more for amateur
photo-play production where power wiring may be in-
stalled.

Of course, these lamps may be used on their low am-
perage connection in almost any home, and for short
periods the average wiring will stand a 20 ampere
draw, but if this is continued it may damage the instal-
lation. For the industrial worker, the commercial
worker, the scientist and others engaged in special
work, the second type of lamp offers decided attrac-
tions.

It must be remembered that in so far as actinic or

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 127

photographic power is concerned, these double range
lamps give about one-fourth the light at ten amperes
as they do at twenty, so that for the maximum effi-
ciency, your electric supply must come through 25 am-
pere fuses or larger. For using the ten ampere range
of the two range lamp you must use fifteen ampere
fuses and for the Cameralite, Little Sunny, Traut-
Minima and similar lamps you will use ten ampere
fuses. These sizes are minimum, larger sizes may be
used if desired, but do not throw a too heavy load on
the house line until an electrician advises you as to the
load which the wiring will safely carry. Homes which
are equipped with electric heat, electric refrigeration,
or other power lines can usually arrange to plug in the
arc on these heavy duty lines and in that way two or
even more of the heavier duty lamps can be used on
the 20 ampere pull.

There is hardly a field in amateur or even commercial
and industrial cinematography which cannot be fully
covered by the use of one or more types of the lamps
described.

Bear in mind when using arc lights of any kind, that the
light must never be extinguished by throwing a house light-
ing switch! Always extinguish the light by pulling the
plug out of its socket. An ordinary switch would arc and
fuse the metal, possibly causing a short circuit which
would blow the line fuses. When through using an arc
light, pull the plug!

CHAPTER SIX

LENSES AND OPTICAL ACCESSORIES

There seems to be a certain vagueness concerning the
bit of "lass set in the front of a camera. What is it? Why

is it necessa

and what does it do?

{Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
Cine Kodak Model B with f 1.9 lens equipment.

If you impatient non-technical readers will excuse us
for a few paragraphs, we will try to skim over the surface

128

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 129

of this subject and you can then join us again for the dis-
cussion of specific accessories and lenses.

Light is reflected in all directions from a point in a surface. Thus from point A rays
are reflected in directions 1 to 19 inclusive. A lens placed before this surface inter-
sects rays 9, 10 and 11 at points C, M and D. The other rays do not have any effect
upon the lens or film. The rays 9 and 1 1 are bent at points C and D and come to a
focus together with ray 10 at point B. Passing this point they again diverge in
directions indicated by E, F and G.

Light. — We have already seen that light travels in
straight lines — when it doesn't travel in a crooked one.
The fact is that light travels in an approximately
straight line only when its path lies through some
medium of uniform density and composition. As soon
as light leaves one medium such as air and enters an-
other such as glass, it is bent to some degree, but as it
is bent in a reverse direction when emerging from the
other side of this medium and to a corresponding de-
gree, the displacement is hardly noticeable. However,
if the two sides of this medium are not parallel, then
we do have a very apparent displacement of the rays
which is apparent as a distortion of the image.

Prism. — Most of us know that a prism will break an
ordinary beam of light into its component spectral or
"rainbow" colors. If we could twist this prism into a
doughnut shape without the hole in the center we would
have a piece of glass which would resemble two very
flat, squat cones placed base to base. The same pris-
matic effect would persist but in a circular rather than
a linear direction. If we now allow a beam of light to
pass through this circular prism and fall upon a screen

130

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

of white paper, we will see one of the spectral colors
as a spot, and around this in concentric circles, the
other colors in their proper relation. As we change the
distance between the screen and the circular prism,
the different colors will occupy the central position in
turn.

Mechanism of Image Formation. We have a surface XY in which three points are
located (D, B and F). From each of these points a ray passes through the lens and
is brought to a focus upon the film MN. Figure 1 shows the path of ray AB,
Figure 2 shows ray CD and Figure 3 shows the path of ray EF. Figure 4 shows all
three rays combined. We may assume that every other point in the surface XY is
likewise reproduced in the plane MN. As the axial rays of these ray bundles follow
a straight path passing through the center of the lens it follows that the image in
plane MN will be inverted in relation to the position of the original in plane XV.

Lens. — This circular prism is the most primitive of
all lenses.

If we grind down the apices of the cones and give
both surfaces of the prism a spherical shape, we shall
have the simple double convex lens, which we know as
the "reading" or "burning" glass. This lens exhibits
to a certain degree, the characteristics of a photo-
graphic objective or lens, but it exhibits so many faults
that it is practically worthless for this work. We will

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 131

follow the development of the lens briefly by consider-
ing these faults and their remedies.

Chromatic Aberration. — This is a fault of the lens
which causes it to separate the colors of white light
just as we saw in the case of the circular prism. As
objects are seen in various colors, it is evident that we
must bring all colors to a focus at one point. Other-
wise we get a diffused or "soft focus" picture. By com-
bining a positive lens (one which is thicker in the cen-
ter than at the edges) with a negative (one which is
thinner at the center than at the edges) we accomplish
our result. The positive lens brings light rays together,
and the negative spreads them. This change of direc-
tion has a magnitude depending upon the refractive
power of the glass, so by using glass of two kinds we
can bend the converging rays -outward just enough to
compensate for the color dispersion and still have the
rays meet in a common point or "focus."

Spherical Aberration. — The achromatic lens which
we made by combining a positive and a negative lens,
bends the rays more sharply at the edges than at the
central portion. This again gives us a diffused image
which is independent of color. By changing the shape
of the surface from a true spherical curve and by add-
ing a negative lens we can correct this.

Curvature of Field. — The lens tends to give a sau-
cer-shaped field. By further altering the curvature we
can flatten this field so that a picture upon a flat film
will be rendered sharp throughout its area.

Linear Distortion. — To overcome some of these
faults we exclude the marginal rays by use of a shield
which has a round hole pierced in it. This is the dia-
phragm. In modern lenses this diaphragm is adjust-
able and is known as the iris diaphragm. This makes
straight lines bend in one direction or another depend-
ing upon its position before or behind the lens. By
placing a lens on both sides of the diaphragm, we cor-
rect this and secure the rapid rectilinear lens, which
has four times the speed and one-half the focal length
of the corresponding simple lens.

Rapid Rectilinear Lens. — When the rapid rectilin-
ear lens was developed, it was hailed as the ultimate in
lens perfection. It placed in the hands of the photog-

132

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

rapher a lens of extreme speed, yet one which gave
beautiful definition throughout the picture. At this
time photography was limited to contact reproduction.
Later on the small camera became so popular, due to
its convenience in transportation and operation, that
enlarging was changed from an experiment to a detail
of everyday routine. With the popularization of en
largement, came the discovery that the definition of the
rapid rectilinear was sufficient only for contact print-
ing. The enlarged prints showed that these lenses pos-
sessed vestiges of most of the primary aberrations, that

The manner in which the image of an object is formed by a lens is graphically shown

in this drawinsj.

they did not possess an absolutely flat field and that
they did not render both vertical and horizontal lines
with equal definition. This last fault was due to a
hitherto neglected aberration, namely, astigmatism.

Anastigmat Lens. — After extensive research, and
incidentally the compounding of an entirely new glass,
a lens was made which had an extremely flat field,
which was corrected for all aberrations to a much finer
degree than the older lenses and which was fully cor-
rected for astigmatism. These lenses would photo-
graph printed matter in which the letters in the
extreme corners of the plate were as sharp as those in
the center. This new lens was known as the anas-
tigmat.

The rapid rectilinear lenses were rarely made with
a speed greater than f 6.5, and the usual speed was f 8.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 133

The anastigmats were brought down to f 4.5 very
shortly after they were perfected. This was hailed as
a miracle, but since that time the formulae for the
manufacture of these lenses have been perfected to such
an extent that lenses of f 1.5 are now commercially
available and lenses of f 1 have been made experiment-
ally. By the use of a fluid cell a lens was once made
which had the speed of f 0.5, but it had not, of course,
anastigmatic correction.

Due to the fact that motion picture projection de-
mands the utmost in enlarging, we need a lens which
has been corrected to the last degree. Therefore it is
essential that we use an anastigmat lens of the finest
quality.

Finally, before leaving this discussion we should con-
sider the subject of the "f" values or the comparative
speed of lenses.

Speed of lenses. Given two lenses of the same focal length. The diameter of one is
equal to EK the other to XY. Rays emanate in all directions from point A. The
solid lines indicate the rays intercepted and focussed by the slow lens of small diameter
EK; the broken lines indicate the rays focussed by the large diameter rapid lens XY
while the rays indicated by dotted lines B, C, M & N are lost unless an even larger
and more rapid lens is used. The speed of a lens of given focal length depends upon
the diameter of the diaphragm (lens) opening.

Speed of Lenses. — We often speak of the speed of
lenses. It must be evident that a bit of glass can have
no inherent quality which enables it to crowd more
light through itself than any other bit of similar glass.
We find that the speed of lenses refers only to the diam-
eter of the opening through which the light passes.

134 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

The larger this opening, the faster the lens ignoring
losses due to reflection. One might say, then why not
make a lens six inches in diameter and secure a lens
with marvelous speed. This is all very well, but when
that lens is completed we will find that it forms an
image at a comparatively long distance from itself, and
we are back at our starting point once more.

Thus we see that any factor which will indicate the
speed of a lens must take into consideration both the
actual diameter and the focal length of a lens. Now if
we have a lens of six inch focus, such as we use for
telephoto work in amateur cinematography, and we find
that this lens has a diaphragm diameter of 1.5 inches,
we divide the focal length by this diameter and we have
6/1.5 equals 4. Then we say that the lens has a speed
of f 4. Likewise, let us suppose that we have a lens of
twelve inch focus whose diameter is three inches, and
a third one of three inch focus whose diameter is three-
fourths of one inch. Similar calculations will all give
4 as the final result, so we find that these lenses, whose
actual working diameter is %, IV2 and 3 inches respec-
tively, all have the same speed, and all three would re-
quire identical exposures provided the same quality of
film were used in each case, under identical lighting
conditions.

The actual diameter of a lens is no indication of its
speed unless we also know the focal length of the lens!

In trying out these calculations with your own lens,
remember that the diameter of the lens opening is mea-
sured with the two elements of the lens in place. This
gives a slightly different result than measuring the ac-
tual diameter of the diaphragm. This apparent diam-
eter indicates the effective aperture as compared with
the actual aperture.

Focal Length. — Every lens used in motion picture
photography is marked with its focal length. This focal
length is the distance from the optical center of the lens
to the surface of the film when an object at a great distance
is sharply focussed. The reason for the use of lenses of
various focal lengths is not clearly understood by many
cinematographers. For the sake of illustration, let us
consider the usual one inch lens as the standard for sixteen

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

135

millimeter use. This we may call the "eye" lens, giving us
a scene about as the eye sees it. Then suppose that we go
to a ball game, and we take a pair of low power binocu-
lars with us. These binoculars aid us in seeing certain
details which we should otherwise miss. If we also take
the camera we will equip it with a four inch lens which

FOCAL LENGTH OF LENSES

Objects in plane AB are focussed upon plane ab by short focus lens S and long focus

lens L. The short focus lens S gives an image of field CD upon focal plane ab while

long focus lens L gives an image of the small field EF on same size focal area ab.

corresponds roughly to our low power glasses. That is,
with this lens we get an image which is four times as large,
lineally, as with our one inch lens. Finally, we go to the
races with a six power glass, and to secure a corresponding
film we make use of a six inch lens, which gives us an
image six times as large, lineally, as the one inch lens.

The greater the focal length of the lens the larger will
he the image upon the film!

Lens Angle. — This brings up the question of the
lens angle. This angle is easily determined. We know

136 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

that we have an aperture base of 10.5 millimeters. (In
fact the diagonal should be used, but for practical pur-
poses, the base gives us a more valuable working basis)
If we use a lens of 25 millimeter (1 inch) focus, we
have the determinate elements of a triangle, the base
of which is 10.5 millimeters and whose altitude is 25
millimeters. By constructing this triangle we find the
lens angle which is identical with the included angle
at the apex of this triangle. (For table of lens angles
see Appendix.)

If we use a lens of two inches focal length, we find
that as the base is unchanged, the angle becomes much
more narrow. As it is evident that everything included
between the legs of the corresponding exterior angle
will fill the frame from side to side, it follows that,

The narrower the angle of the lens the larger will be
the image of any given object at a given distance from
the lens.

The angle of the 25 millimeter (1 inch) lens used
with sixteen millimeter film includes an angle of ap-
proximately 21 degrees on the base of the frame.

The usual sixteen millimeter camera comes equipped
with a lens of twenty-five millimeters focal length, and
ranging from f 6.5 down to f 2.7 in speed, the usual speed
being f3.5. The average camera owner will continue to
use this lens for some time, and in fact it is better for him
to use it in making the first four or five spools of film. By
the time four hundred feet of film have been exposed, de-
veloped and projected, the cinematographer should have a
fairly definite idea of the action of various lighting effects,
whether natural or artificial. He will have become used
to the operation of the camera, and he should have become
used to the manipulation of a good exposure meter.

There can be no doubt that the use of one lens for all
purposes soon gives a familiarity which enables one to
secure a satisfactory exposure with almost any subject.
This 25 millimeter lens has been adopted for amateur use
because it has that focal length which gives the most nat-
ural perspective when the pictures are projected upon
the screen, under average, normal home conditions. This
lens will re-create scenes in such a manner that the scene

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 137

as the eye saw it will be practically duplicated, with the
limitations imposed by the shortcomings of the photo-
graphic process, of course.

For this reason the 25 millimeter lens is the nearest
approach we have to the ideal universal cine lens for six-
teen millimeter film. It is the lens which will be habitually
used for vacation films, casual shots and perhaps half of
the serious work undertaken by the advanced amateur.
However, this must not be taken to mean that this lens
should be the only one ever used. The amateur who limits
himself to the use of one lens, no matter what that lens
may be, is losing ninety percent of the pleasure which may
be secured from motion picture photography. The use of
any one lens induces a monotony of treatment which not
only becomes tiresome to the cameraman, but it also re-
sults in a film which is trying for the spectators. In order
that a set or "battery" of lenses may be selected intelli-
gently, we should consider, first, the various classes of
lenses, and then the individual examples of each class.

We will of course assume that the lens to be used in
cinematography shall be an anastigmat. To this there is
the one exception of the soft focus lens, but besides that
one we shall consider only the finest lenses available, the
fully corrected anastigmat.

Lens Classification. — These lenses may be classified in
two ways, first according to their individual maximum
apertures and second, regarding their focal length. We
have lenses whose maximum aperture is as high as f 1.5,
and experience teaches us that rarely can we use an aper-
ture smaller than f 16. Moreover experience has taught us
that we should have available a range of exposures which
bear the ratio of about eight to one, and as we have no
adjustable shutter, we must have a range of diaphragm
apertures whose areas vary from one to eight. If, then,
f 16 is the smallest practical aperture we must use one
whose f value is about eight times this. We have seen that
the speed of lenses varies inversely as the squares of the
f values, so we have 16 x 16 equals 256. One-eighth of
256 is 32. The square of six is 36 which is near enough.
Thus our maximum aperture should be at least f 6. We will

138 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

find the slowest lenses used on high grade cameras will
have maximum apertures ranging from f 7 to f 6, usually
about f 6.5. The amateur will rarely want to use any
larger aperture than this, when shooting exteriors under
normal light conditions.

While considering the f values of lenses we might pause
to consider this fact. One lens working at a stop of f 8 is
no faster than any other lens set at the same stop, regard-
less of their relative maximum apertures! This means that
the finest anastigmat made, when set at f 16 is not one bit
faster than the lens in your two dollar Brownie camera.

This statement, notice, pertains to speed only. The fine
anastigmat correction remains in the better lens, and
this is a consideration entirely separated from the con-
sideration of speed as we shall see later.

Some modern lenses are advertised as being "bril-
liant." This is a little understood but vitally important
point. No piece of glass will transmit 100% of the
light which falls upon it, a certain amount of light is
lost through "absorption," and a far greater amount
through reflection. Thus we have lenses which trans-
mit 90% or more of the light which falls upon them,
while other lenses, although of the anastigmat class
transmit less than 40%. We can see that if two lenses,
both working at f 4.5, be used under identical condi-
tions, one transmitting 90% and the other 45 % that the
results will be that of two lenses of equal brilliancy,
one working at f 4.5 and the other at 6.3. For this rea-
son it is essential that only lenses of the best quality
be used.

We find that lenses naturally fall into four sub-classes
in regard to speed, ultra-rapid, rapid, normal and slow.
The ultra-rapid lenses include those whose speeds vary
from f 1.5 to f 2, such as the f 1.5 ; f 1.8 ; f 1.9; f 2.0. These
lenses will give a full exposure to normal film under un-
believably adverse lighting conditions.

Ultra Rapid Lenses. — As it has long been accepted as a
basic law in applied optics that any anastigmat lens shall
be as free as possible from all faults or "aberrations," the
design and manufacture of such lenses has been very dif-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 139

ficult and this difficulty has increased in almost geometric
progression with each new and larger aperture attempted.
The first lens of this type, an f 1.9 was a serious offender.
It was generally well corrected but it had a very bad and
non-uniform chromatic aberration of such a character that
a sharp visual focus could be obtained, upon one plane, but
the blue focus, the active chemical focus was in a quite
different plane. The result was that, unless this difference
between the visual and chemical foci was compensated,
there would be a bad out-of -focus blur upon the exposed
film. This fault was soon overcome, this lens now having
fully satisfactory correction.

It was found to be a practical impossibility to make
lenses of such extreme speed without some residual
aberrations, but these were minimized to such an ex-
tent that for all practical purposes these extremely fast
lenses are as good as other anastigmats. However, be-
fore saying anything more about them, it would be well
to designate just what the "softness" is which the
slightly undercorrected lens gives. Compare any ordi-
nary amateur snapshot, made with a camera having a
fixed focus lens, with a photograph made by a commer-
cial photographer for purposes of reproduction. The
amateur print is pleasing, if good at all, while the pro-
fessional print has a wiry sharpness of detail almost
as though the details had been cut from paper and
pasted to the background. The amateur print is soft
while the professional print has the utmost of anastig-
matic definition. The softness referred to must not be
confused with the fuzzy "soft focus" work so popular
with pictorial workers. This softness due to residual
aberration is so slight that it will never be noticed
when viewing the projection of the film.

Residual Aberration. — Residual aberration may
have either of two effects, one is the softness which
has just been fully described but which is not visually
or directly perceptible, but which makes itself known
in giving a general smooth, blended appearance to the
image, while the other gives a duplication of the image
which markedly resembles the double image secured
when the camera is moved slightly. This subject can-
not be gone into more deeply at this time, but for fur-

140 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

ther information and diagrams the reader is referred
to the excellent address given by Doctor R. Thun of
Berlin and published in "Kino-Technik." The reader
may be able to secure reprints from the Hugo Meyer
Optical Company of New York.

The central portions of fast lenses are ground as
accurately and corrected as highly as in any fine anas-
tigmat, but the difficulties arise in properly grinding
the periphery and such residual aberration as may be
found in a lens arises from the aberration of the periph-
eral rays. It follows then, that if a smaller stop is
used with these lenses and only this central portion of
the lens used, that the lens will be equal to any lens.
This is true, but to a certain limited degree.

Let us consider as a concrete example the most rapid
lens obtainable on the open market to-day. This is the
Plasmat, a creation of Doctor P. Rudolph who gave us the
Protar, the Tessar, the f 4 Plasmat and finally the f 1.5
Plasmat.

The experiments of Dr. Thun of Berlin led him to
state that at apertures of f 3.5 and smaller, this lens gives
as fine quality as any lens made, and at f 1.5 it gives a defi-
nition which is soft but not to a perceptible degree, which
in turn gives an actual working depth of focus almost
equal to that of an f 2.7 to f 3 lens.

Here we have a decided advantage. Optical law
states that with the increase of aperture we have a de-
crease in the depth of field. This is true, but by using
a lens which gives a slight softness, this softness is not
visible as apparent fuzziness or distortion, yet it re-
sults in the extension of the depth of field to a remark-
able degree.

This may be slightly technical, but with all of the
present confusion regarding these extremely fast *
lenses, the amateur should know just what they will and
will not do. We may accept it as axiomatic that the
larger the aperture the less highly corrected any lens
will be, and also that the quality of a lens of this type
is not to be judged by the presence or absence of faults,
but the way in which such faults are distributed
throughout the lens to disguise their presence. A fault
which is not apparent is practically non-existent.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

141

And now, just what will such a lens do? The ultra-rapid
lens is made for the express purpose of securing an ex-
posure when, without it, there would not be sufficient light.
This does not limit the usefulness of this lens to night
work by any means.

In the ordinary well lighted interior it is possible to
make motion pictures with an f 1.5 lens without the aid
of artificial light. This is practically impossible with the
f 3.5 lens. This in itself opens up an entirely new field for
the amateur. Again, we often find ourselves confronted
with landscapes of such nature that we should like to use
a heavy filter, but we cannot because of the loss of light
incurred. With an ultrafast lens, such filters may be used
whenever desired. Then, we often find ourselves in glades
and ravines where the light is dim and has a distinctly
greenish hue. Such a light is particularly bad for photog-
raphy, but with the compensation afforded by the ultra
fast lens we may make exposures with assurance of success.

The amateur is constantly confronted with scenes which
for one reason or another he cannot photograph, usually
the fault being the lack of a sufficient quantity of the
proper kind of light. The extremely rapid lens will allow
him to secure most of these shots.

(Courtesy Burleigh Brooks)
A cross section showing the construction of a modern fast anastigmat lens. As lenses
of such extreme speed require careful adjustment, this lens is provided with an
adjusting collar by means of which any lens may be individually adjusted to the
camera with which it is to be used. This adjustment does not interfere with the

interchange of lenses.

The recent rapidly growing interest in slow motion and
interior cinematography has given rise to a demand for a
fast lens which is not a special purpose lens. The amateur
wants a fast lens which he can leave upon his camera per-
manently and use it at the smaller stops for usual work

142 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

as well as for high speed work. It has been pointed out
that this is a very difficult combination to secure. In fact
it is so difficult that the combination speed and all-pur-
pose lenses, such as the Schneider Xenon, have been given
the perfect correction necessary for all-purpose and all-stop
work only by sacrificing a little of their maximum speed.
They have maxima of about f2, which is, practically
speaking, about as fast as the f 1.9 lenses. They are fully
corrected for use at any aperture and will compare favor-
ably, stop for stop, with any cine-anastigmat while giving
ample speed for dark days, heavy filters, slow motion and
interior work.

Kapid Lenses. — The medium rapid class of lenses which
range from f 2.5 to f 3 are really no more than normal cine
anastigmat lenses rendered somewhat more efficient. The
f 2.5 lens has a speed about twice as fast as the f 3.5, and
the others such as f 2.7, f 2.9 and f 3 a steadily decreasing
speed. The f 3 requires only % of the exposure required by
the f 3.5. These lenses have a very slightly lower degree of
correction than the f 3.5, so that they may be regarded as
highly efficient normal lenses of slightly less than usual
quality.

Normal Lenses. — The normal class is represented by
the lenses of values f 3.5, f 3.8, f 4 and f 4.5. These lenses
are the speed usually found on cine cameras, the f 4 and
f 4.5 being used for the lenses of longer focus, while the
shorter lenses usually have a speed of f 3.5. They are
highly corrected and film made with these lenses will show
the actual silver grain before they will show any loss of
definition due to poor lens quality.

The most highly corrected lenses which we have in gen-
eral use are very slow, having speeds of approximately f 9
or f 10. These lenses are used by photo-engravers who make
plates for three color printing. Perhaps the most highly
corrected photographic lenses for general use are those
types known as the Protar and Dagor types. These lenses
give a very sharp definition Avhen properly handled. The
f 3.5 cine lenses do not give such needle-sharp definition
but they are highly enough corrected to give perfect satis-
faction, even in the exacting work of studio production.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

143

Therefore, the amateur who uses a high grade cine anas-
tigmat of f 3.5 has the satisfaction of knowing that he is
using the best obtainable lens of its speed, and the same
lens that is used in professional studio production.

Thus we have seen the need of the ultra fast lens and of
the standard speed lens. The ownership of these two lenses
will enable the cinema tographer to secure almost any film
he may want, but not quite every one. To understand the
shortcomings of this two lens battery, we shall take up the
question of the proper focal length of lenses for cinematog-
raphy.

(Courtesy Bell & Hozvcll)
The image secured The image secured The image secured The image secured
with a 1" lens. with the 3" lens. with a 3 54 " lens. with a 6" lens.

The effect upon the image secured with the 16 m/m camera when using lenses of

various focal lengths as indicated. This clearly demonstrates the value of long focus

lenses in amateur cinematography.

Focal Length. — In this discussion it is well to remem-
ber that the focal length of the lens has but a slight direct
bearing upon its speed. For mechanical reasons as well as
optical, the longer focus lenses are usually slower than the
short focus lenses.

As has been pointed out, the longer the focus of the lens,
the larger will be the image, and the less extensive the
field of view.

It may be assumed that the linear enlargement se-
cured with any lens is in proportion to the ratio exist-
ing between the focal lengths of the lenses in question.
Thus we find that the one inch lens used with sixteen
millimeter film embraces an angle of approximately
2IV2 degrees while the two inch lens used with the
same film embraces an angle of about 11 degrees. (The
angles given are for the base of the frame and not the
diagonal.) It is evident that if we extend these angles
that at any given point the larger angle will subtend a

144

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

perpendicular just twice the length of that subtended
by the narrower, or in other words, the narrower angle
will give an image twice the size of that given by the
wider.

It would seem then that all that is necessary to secure
any size image desired is to mount the corresponding
lens on the camera and shoot. Unfortunately it is not
as simple as that. In the first place we must remember
that any ordinary photographic lens must be placed in
front of the film a distance at least equal to the focal
length of the lens. In addition to this the absolute
diameter of the lens increases with the focal length,
so that we soon have a lens whose long extension and
weight make its use prohibitive. Aside from this we
have certain optical difficulties imposed by the long
focus lens. For these reasons, six inches is about the
limit for ordinary lenses when used with substandard
motion picture cameras. Even this is so inconvenient
that it has been largely superseded by the six inch
telephoto lens.

(.Courtesy Burleigh Brooks)
Lenses which Rive increased focal length without the corresponding- increase in physical
length are known as "Telephoto" lenses. The cross section above shows the con-
struction of such a lens.

There seems to be some confusion regarding the use
and meaning of the word telephoto. A telephoto lens
is a particular lens design, and not merely a lens of
longer focus than normal for the use to which it is
placed. The telephoto lens has a focal length of (us-
ually) about twice its actual mount length. This short-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 145

ening of the physical body of the lens is made possible
by the introduction of a negative lens element which
disperses the converging rays to a slight degree.

A six inch telephoto lens will give the same sized im-
age as a regular six inch lens.

The purpose, then, of the long focus lens is obvious. It
is made to enable us to secure larger images at any given
distance from our subject. The six inch lens will have
about the same effect upon the sixteen millimeter camera
that a six power prism binocular has upon normal vision.

Long Focus Lenses. — Lenses of longer focal lengths
than the normal, do not fall into natural groups as they
do when considered in relation to their relative speeds.
The focal lengths progress almost without break by inches,
with many makers offering fractional inch differences,
thus we may have 3 inch, S1/^ inch, 3y2 inch and 3% inch.
For practical work only three focal lengths are necessary,
for example the one, the three and the six inch. These
will secure anvthin£ vou will want.

{Courtesy Bell & Hozvell)
When using the longer focus lenses on the Filmo Camera the field of the original
finder is obscured. The extension unit makes possible a clear and unobstructed view
even when using the largest lenses.

The use of the telephoto or long focus lens requires a
little practice. We will find that any unsteadiness of the
camera is magnified with the magnification of the image.
For most persons, then, the limit of focal length of lens
for the hand held camera is two inches. For greater focal
lengths, by all means support the camera upon a tripod.
By using a tripod, a perfect film may be obtained, even
when using a six inch lens.

When using lenses of focal length greater than usual, it
is necessary to make use of some kind of masking finder.
Otherwise the subject will almost invariably be allowed to
pass out of the field of view, for the field of the six inch

146 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

lens is unbelievably small, the included angle being less
than 4 degrees. It is equivalent to using a 150 inch lens
with an 8 x 10 camera.

The uses of such a lens are obvious. In making films of
wild animals, birds and in all similar work the long focus
lens is absolutely essential, and also in making shots of
public events where close approach to the subject is pre-
vented by crowds. Travellers find such a lens invaluable in
"stealing" shots of scenes from such a distance that the
camera is unnoticed, and in many similar circumstances.

Such lenses as these have considerably less depth "of
focus than the lenses of shorter focal length, so it is neces-
sary to focus them with extreme care. In fact, more care
in focussing with any lens will result in an improvement
of the quality of the films produced which will be sur-
prising. There are two ways in which this can be accom-
plished.

Distance Meters. — In the first place, the cinematog-
rapher may make use of a distance meter or range finder
such as the Leitz Fodis range finder or the Zeiss-Ikon
Goerz distance meter. These meters work on the rocking
prism principle and are accurate to within 5% or less, and
in practically every case this amount of error, which is
equivalent to a trifle more than one-half inch per foot, will
be compensated by the inherent depth of focus of the lens.
In looking at the subject through one of these meters, the
details are seen in duplicate. By bringing these details
into proper coincidence, the distance of the subject is de-
termined. These meters have been described fully in Chap-
ter Three.

When the distance has been determined by the use of
the distance meter the lens is focussed to correspond by
means of the focussing jacket. With high grade lenses,
the calibration may be depended upon as being absolutely
accurate, and exposures made in this manner will be abso-
lutely correctly focussed.

Direct Focus. — Professional cameras are equipped with
a device which enables the operator to see the actual im-
age through the camera lens, just as it will appear upon
the film. This enables the focus to be determined visuallv,

147

148 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

and at the same time, the arrangement of the subject in
the field is likewise assured, and no danger of poor ar-
rangement due to lack of coincidence between fields of the
finder lens and camera lens. Unfortunately the camera
manufacturers have not seen fit to make such provision on
the amateur cameras, despite innumerable demands on the
part of the amateurs. This is one of the most serious faults
of the modern amateur cine camera, and one which has
been overcome due to the engineering skill of the C. P.
Goerz American Optical Company.

The Goerz reflecting focussing device attaches to the
camera in the usual lens mount collar. The lens is then
attached to the outer end of the barrel of the device. This
focussing device is equipped with a sliding, total reflection
prism, and a high power microscope. When the prism is
in place behind the lens, the image is presented to the eye
just as it will appear upon the film, and magnified to such
an extent that it may be easily focussed with the utmost
accuracy. At the same time the arrangement of the sub-
ject in the field is made. When this is done, the prism is
moved to one side. This leaves the light path entirely un-
obstructed and at the same time closes the side opening
absolutely preventing any fog from this source. This little
device is indispensable for the scientific worker and others
who use long focus lenses extensively. A further use of
this device in low power photomicrography will be ex-
plained in another chapter.

This accessory is small and attaches to the camera in
an unobtrusive manner. One of its features is that the
operator using this device looks into the tube from the
side, so that the camera may be focussed upon a subject
whose position is at right angles to that of the cinematog-
rapher, making "stolen" shots easier than ever.

Thus far we see that success with any lens is assured
if we (a) give proper exposure as indicated by a reliable
exposure meter (b) focus the lens properly according to
the reading of a reliable range finder or by direct vision,
and (c) if Ave arrange the subject matter properly in the
frame. Tn order to accomplish all of these aims we need
the instruments mentioned as well as the reflex focussing

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 149

device. Sensible accessories are good investments and
pay high dividends in the way of vastly improved results,
but the cinematographer must learn to differentiate be-
tween the necessary and well designed accessory and the
fancy but impractical "gadget."

Filters. — Manufacturers have been urging the use of
filters or color screens. The most common and the almost
universal sales argument is that the filter will "get the
clouds." Now why it is so vitally important that the
clouds should be "got" is a deep mystery. True, the sky
which has the proper tonal values will reveal any existent
cloud forms, but the presence of the cloud is only a symp-
tom and not the disease — than which no simile could be
more inapt. There should be a full understanding of the
uses and abuses of the color screen on the part of every
amateur, but to discuss this, even briefly, necessitates the
exposition of more theory. The writer sincerely trusts
that the practical reader is not becoming bored with these
technical phases of the work — which mean so much in the
matter of successful cinematography.

The Spectrum. — Like Gaul, our spectrum is divided
into three parts, the super-visible, the visible and the
sub-visible, known more commonly as ultra-violet, vis-
ible daylight and infra-red light. With the infra-red
we are not concerned, but we shall devote our entire at-
tention to the other two. Daylight is — daylight, known
universally, and indescribable beyond the statement
that it is composed of a mixture of all known visible
color. The ultra-violet is not in any basic way different
from daylight except for the insignificant fact that we
cannot see it nor see by its illumination. (The latter
statement is subject to some exceptions which have no
bearing upon this work) .

We recall from our schooldays that the sensation of
color is caused by the different vibratory rates of those
etheric waves which we call "light." The red is a slow,
heavy-waved color, while the visible violet is a thing
of delicate waves moving very rapidly. The ultra-violet
is the same as the violet but more delicate and having a
more rapid vibratory rate. There is reason to believe
that it is the actual vibration which affects the sensitive

150 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

film rather than that vague quality which we call lumin-
osity. At any rate, we find that the shorter and more
rapid waves affect the sensitive material more quickly
than do the slower waves. The most photographically
powerful visible color which we have is the highest vis-
ible blue, while as we ascend the scale we find the ultra-
violet vibrations growing more and more powerful,
photographically speaking. It so happens that the
chemically active, or photographic, rays overlap the
visual rays in the blue region.

We know that all colored objects are photographically
rendered as black, white or some shade of intermediate
gray. We find that the depth of the gray tone is directly
proportional to the position, in the spectrum, of the color
of the original. Thus red photographs as almost pure
black, while blue gives us, photographically, a much softer,
more attractive white than does white itself ! We should
then expect yellow and green to be represented as medium
gray. This is true, although they are rather more dark
than light gray.

Panchromatic Film. — With the improvement in
emulsion making, chemists have succeeded in making
the sensitive material respond to lower and lower vi-
brations, and this means that where the original emul-
sion was almost totally blind to every color except blue,
we now have in our common emulsions a material which
will react to colors as far down the scale as yellow, and
with some specially prepared emulsions, we get a reac-
tion to every visible color ! This latter type of emul-
sion is known as panchromatic.

Laboratories for film processing — the old time "dark-
rooms" were illuminated by red light, because the red
light had almost as little effect upon the emulsion as
no light at all, but when we sensitize the emulsion to
red light we render the old "ruby-light" useless. This
panchromatic film must be developed in total darkness,
or a very dim green light. Why green, when it is so
much higher up the scale than red? Because the eye
can see by the aid of a smaller amount of green light
than of any other single color.

What of this, in amateur cinematography? Correct

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 151

tonal values! Imagine a young lady clad in a bathing suit
ornamented with broad bands of scarlet and blue. No,
better yet imagine the entire suit scarlet, with edging and
trimming of blue. The red is bright while the blue is sub-
dued and cold. Make a photograph of this young lady and
examine the result. The suit is dark with a light colored
edging. You have, to all intents and purposes a negative !
Yet we have become so accustomed to this effect in photo-
graphs that we accept it as truthful !

One of the principal beauties of a landscape is the pure
blue of the sky, delicate and softly blended in various
tones, with perhaps a wandering cloud form and perhaps
without. We snap this with our Brownie or with our
movie camera either one, and we get a sky which in most
cases is a bare expanse of blazing, distracting white. What
would you think if you were to venture forth some day and
see a sky the color of a cafeteria table-top?

Now why is this true? As we have said the modern film
is sensitive to colors as low as the yellow. This is true,
but the sensitivity drops with each color and "fades out"
in the yellow. The blue acts far more quickly than the
others. If we give sufficient exposure to get some of the
higher green, the blues have burned up their alloted por-
tion of the emulsion on the film and this gives us pure
white in the positive. Remember the more active any color,
the lighter it will be represented in our film.

(Courtesy Burleigh Brooks)
The amateur should use a good filter upon every possible occasion as its use will
inevitably result in better films. One of the most serviceable filters is the graduated
filter such as is shown here. This is the Ramstein filter.

Color Values. — In order to allow the yellow and green
rays to. act without having the blue rays overdo their
work we must erect a gate before our lens which will let the

152 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

yellow and green pass easily but which will hold back the
blue and only let it seep through. This gate we call a
"filter" because it filters out the blue. In fact filters are
made which filter out every bit of the blue but, this is too
much for average work. We don't want our blues to be
represented as black, only as a medium gray. So we use
the ordinary yellow filter.

As the blue rays are the most powerful, they will affect
the emulsion in less time than the other colors will. Then
if we cut out the blue rays we must admit enough of the
yellow rays to pass to expose the film. Suppose that we
found our meter to indicate f 8 as the proper diaphragm
setting, but after that we decided to use a heavy yellow
filter which cut off so much blue that it required four
times as much of the filtered light to affect the film. This
filter would be marked 4x and Ave would use a stop of f 4
which is 4 times as fast as f 8. The filter adds nothing. It
merely removes the too active blue raj/s. It follows that if
some light is taken away and none added that the exposure
must be increased. .17? filters require some additional ex-
pos a re.

(Courtesy Wollensak Optical Co.)
Solid color filters are often mounted in cells which slip over the lens mount or screw
into it such as this one.

Then what happens? The blue seeps through and affects
only a part of the sensitive material, but the white of any
clouds in the sky contain both blue and the other colors
and the whole bombards the film and affects practically all
of the sensitive material. Yellows and green affect the
film somewhat and as a result we find our landscape film
shows a sky having a delicately blended gray tone with the
white cloud forms easily apparent, but we also note that
all other color values are far more truthfully rendered. It
is this latter fact that lends so much charm to filtered nega-
tives. While we do not consciously notice the true reason,

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

153

we instinctively recognise the reproduction as being more
nearly true to nature and we have carelessly attributed it
solely to the "clouds showing in the sky." Do not mistake
me. I do not underestimate the beauty of the wonderful
cloud forms, but there are other reasons.

{Courtesy Burleigh Brooks)
A landscape taken without the aid of a filter.

{Courtesy Burleigh Brooks)
The same scene taken with the aid of a filter.

There is hardly a subject which will not be rendered
more attractively with a filter! Get the habit of using it
nil the time. Secure a full set of filters, 2x, 3x ami 4x.

154 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

You cannot always use them, for there will be times when
there is insufficient light. Even then you can at times
use the graduated filter which does not filter the dark fore-
ground and which gives the greatest filtering effect upon
the higher sky portion. By all means add the graduated
filter to your set. And above all else secure the best pos-
sible filters. A cheap filter will ruin the correction of the
finest anastigmat lens ever made ! If you use a cheap filter
made of "wavy" glass you might as well use window glass
lenses !

The filters used should be made of glass colored to the
proper depth. This glass should then be ground optically
flat. Such are the Goerz, Ramstein and similar high grade
filters. The graduated filters of this class, such as the
widely known Ramstein, are made by cementing together
a yellow and a clear strip of glass and then grinding this
obliquely giving a physical wedge of yellow glass upon a
colorless support. Such filters will not injure the lens
correction.

There are times when the need of a filter is felt to the
Nth degree. But there may not even be enough light to
use the unscreened lens. Then you feel the need for a
high aperture lens. You cannot afford to be without a lens
of f 2 or faster speed. The f 1.5, f 1.8 and f 1.9 lenses are
often worth their whole cost in securing a single shot, and
then, with this equipment you can filter almost every shot.

The amateur who uses the high aperture, heavily
screened lens would not part with the combination any
more readily than he would part with his camera !

There are a few other accessories Avhich are not strictly
optical in their nature, yet which are used to supplement
the lens effect and for that reason will be discussed here.

Iris Yignetter. — The iris vignetter is similar to the iris
diaphragm in the lens, but it is larger and situated about
two inches in front of the lens. When this iris is operated
during the camera operation it gives a screen effect which
appears as though the screen were covered with a black
curtain in which a constantly decreasing, circular opening
allows the picture to be seen. This is used for various
pictorial effects, for "framing" shots, for pointing out cer-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 155

tain individuals, for opening and Hosing sequences and a
great number of other uses. It is very often used in those
places where the fade would be used in professional work.

(Courtesy Bell & Howell)
The Filmo iris is equipped to take a filter in the manner shown. Other irises make
use of the filter in various ways. The Goerz devices have ample room for the full size
filter in the mask slot of the mask box.

Mask Box. — The Goerz mask box is a rectangular frame
situated about ten inches in front of the lens and connected
to it by means of a long funnel-shaped attachment. This
"frame" is so arranged that "masks" may be inserted in
the frame. These masks are cut from black celluloid or
black cardboard. They have openings of various shapes
cut out and these shapes are registered upon the film. Thus
if a circular opening is cut through the mask, the film
will show the picture in a circle upon the screen. This circle
will have diffused or "soft" edges. If we photograph a
dining table which includes a polished carafe and then
make a mask which allows only the carafe to be seen we
can by a subsequent exposure through this mask photo-
graph a girl who will apparently be confined within the
carafe. This is a form of work which will be discussed more
fully in the chapter devoted to trick work.

By making special effect masks upon film, many pro-
fessional effects may be secured which would otherwise be
unobtainable, and the mask box may also be used for sup-
porting filters.

The mask box is also used for making titles by an in-
genious method which will be explained fully in the chap-
ter devoted to title work. In fact, the mask box, the
outside iris and the reflex focusser are invaluable to the
amateur who really wants to do high class work. The time

Eg.:

P. o

™ i5 in S

s-i

s °

JS*r8.u

156

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 157

has come when amateur films can be made to rival the pro-
fessional ones in quality, and it is strictly up to the ama-
teur to see that his films are of the best.

For the benefit of those amateurs who have certain favor-
ite lens makers a short and partial list of amateur cine
lenses is appended. This list is not, cannot be complete,
for no doubt lenses will be introduced between the time of
this writing and the publication of this book. There are,
too, no doubt, lenses of which the writer has no knowledge,
for he who knows every lens which is produced, even in
this country alone, has a tremendous amount of informa-
tion at his disposal. Standard cine lenses and still camera
lenses are not considered. Only such lenses as have been
adapted to the substandard cameras are listed.

THE WOLLENSAK LENSES

fl.8 25 m/m. The Wollensak ultra fast lenses
for slow motion and deep filter
work. These lenses are supplied
regularly on Victor cameras at
slight additional price

fl.8 50 m/m.

f 2.5 25 m/m. Medium fast lenses

f2.5 50 m/m.

f 3.5 25 m/m. Standard 16 m/m., cine lenses

f3.5 50 m/m.

f 3.5 25 m/m. Verito — The famous Verito soft
focus lenses applied to the sub-
standard cine camera

f3.5 50 m/m. Verito

f 4.5 75. m/m. Medium power telephoto lens.

f3.3 3J4 inch — medium power, slightly greater

magnification and speed than the
f 4.5, 75 millimeter

f 4.5 6 inch — High power telephoto lens

THE GOERZ LENSES

Hypars

f3 16 m/m. The widest angle lens available

for amateur cameras
f 3 25 m/m. The standard amateur cine lens

158 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

f 3 1% inch Slightly long focus

f 3 2 inch Medium long focus

f 3 3 inch Long focus

f 3 4 inch Long focus

Hyparsf2.7

f 2.7 2 inch Somewhat faster than f 3 same

length

f 2.7 3 inch Somewhat faster than f 3 same

length

f 2.7 4 inch Somewhat faster than f 3 same

length
Cinegors

f 2 1% inch Ultra rapid

f 2 ' l%inch Ultra rapid

f 2 2 inch Ultra rapid

Dogma rs

f 4.5 4% inch Long focus

f 4.5 5 inch Extra long focus

f 4.5 6 inch Extreme long focus

Telestars

f 4.5 4% inch Low power Telestar telephoto

f 4.5 6*4 inch Medium power telephoto

f 4.5 9% inch High power telephoto

CARL ZEISS LENSES

f 2.7 25 m/m. Usual substandard lens

f3.5 35 m/m. Considerable enlargement over (he
25 m/m. lens

f 3.5 50 m/m. Medium power telephoto

f 4.5 150 m/m. High power telephoto
COOKE LENSES

f 1.8 25 m/m. The Cooke high speed lens

f 3.5 25 m/m. Usual focal length

f 3.3 3J4 inch — Medium power telephoto lens

f 4.5 6 inch — High power telephoto lens

DALLMEYER LENSES

f 1.9 25 m/m Hall merer high speed lens

f 1.9 50 m/m. High speed, long focus

f 4 4 inch — Medium power telephoto lens

• f 4.5 6 inch — High power telephoto lens

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 159

SCHNEIDER SERIES

f2 25 m/m. Speed and all purpose

f2 35 m/m. " k< "

f2 50 m/m. " " " "

fl.8 75 m/m. " " " " and long focus

f 1.8 105 m/m. " " " " " "

f 5.5 7 1/8 in. Tele-xenar, with 2>y% in. extension

f 5.5 9i/> in. Tele-xenar, with 4j4 in. extension

f 5.5 10 5/8 in. Tele-xenar, with 5*4 in. extension

MEYER PLASMAT SERIES

f 1.5 20 m/m. Slightly wide angle
f 1.5 25 m/m. Usual focal length
f 1.5 1 3/8 in.— Slightly long focus

f 1.5 1 5/8 in. — Slightly long focus

f 1.5 50 m/m. Long focus
f 1.5 75 m/m. Medium power telephoto
For tables and other optical data of a practical nature

the reader is referred to the appendix.

CHAPTER SEVEN

THE MOTION PICTURE TITLE

There have been many arbitrary classifications assigned
to motion picture titles, but the professional usually recog-
nises only three, the main title, which is a group, the sub-
titles or captions and spoken titles. This classification
may serve us as well as any other. If we go into the matter
of explanatory titles, descriptive titles, emotional titles,
expansive and explosive titles we shall become inextricably
confused. This would be absurd as the purpose of the
motion picture title is to eliminate confusion.

That the motion picture is infinitely superior to the
written or spoken language is self evident. That it can
present subtleties and detail beyond the power of words to
express, is well known, but the fact that words are gen-
eralized in import gives the language of the title a power
which the actual picture can never usurp. We flash upon
the screen a title bearing the words "Twenty Years Later."
There we have a definite statement which could have
hardly been presented through the medium of the
picture itself. For the utmost in the transmission of ideas
then, we find a combination of the title and the picture,
almost ideal.

Too often we find a picture either written, directed or
edited by some individual who has not been able to break
the language habit. Such films consist merely of illus-
trated titles. The writer has actually seen films in which
more than half of the reel was composed of titles ! Better,
far better a film without titles at all than one like this.

The motion picture title serves to give information in
the simplest, most concise manner possible, and of such
nature that it cannot be imparted by the action of the
picture itself.

160

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

161

(Title by Eno.
A title made by lettering superimposed upon

Courtesy Amateur Movie Makers)
a diffused scenic background.

The basic title is nothing but a few words projected
upon a black screen. From this simple beginning we have
development along two lines. One line leads us to the
ornamentation which makes the title attractive as a work
of art while the other leads us to the beautification of the
language used which makes the title conform to the best
usage in language. We shall consider the latter point first.

In the first place never use a title unless it is absolutely
necessary, but do not hesitate to use one when it is neces-
sary. Observing this limitation in its strictest sense, you
will find that your titles will run about 35% of your total
footage, and this is really too much. Therefore the first
step is to determine the titles which will not be needed.
When this is done you may consider those which are
needed.

In films made under control, a scenario is usually in
existence and this contains, or should contain the titles.
In other films, the titles are improvised during the prelim-
inary projection. From these extemporaneous titles, the
permanent titles are derived by altering the language.

162

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 163

Title Composition.— With a full list of titles, numbered
in their proper consecutive order, the composition begins.
In the first place, the English is to be improved to the full-
est extent of the writer's ability. This usually means the
lengthening of the title. But that may be disregarded at
this stage. The title is written in a style to correspond
with the spirit of the film. You would hardly make use of
sonorous and dignified language in titling a comedy, nor
would you, I trust, title a serious or even tragic film in the
vernacular of the day. Thus the second step is the adap-
tation of the language used to the character of the film
itself.

With these points established, the length of the title is
examined. It will usually be found that the title can be cut
down perhaps 50% without injuring it in the least, and
often with the result that it is remarkably improved. When
this third step is complete, Ave have the title ready for the
more technical phases of inserting it into the film.

Title Footage. — Before making the exposure upon the
title, we must know how much film to give each title. If
we use too little film we shall have an unsatisfactory title,
while if we use too much we shall have a monotonous
dragging title which robs the film of valuable action. The
common usage in the preparation of standard theatrical
film is to allow one foot of film for each word up to ten,
and one-half foot of film for each word thereafter. As pro-
fessional film runs one foot per second we may restate
this for substandard work as one second per word for all
words up to ten, and one-half second for each word above
ten. In this case, there is a fixed minimum of five seconds,
even for a single word.

This is a standard established for making films pre-
sented to the general public, and unfortunately a large per-
centage of the public is illiterate to the extent that they
have to read by spelling out the words upon the screen and
do not read by word groups. The individual of average
intelligence can read the ordinary motion picture title and
grasp its significance, then start all over again and spell
out the whole thing, letter by letter before it disappears.
If you make film for general exhibition, use this standard.

164

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

However, for family films and for films to be used only
for projection before educated and cultured people, one-
half second per word will be ample with a three second
minimum. If the title runs beyond twenty words, it may
well be compressed to one-third second per word, although
this is a little rapid for the reader who starts philoso-
phizing in the midst of his title reading. A few trials will
soon determine the footage you should allow for the most

Wfc the White

| b Mountains of

; p I New Hampshire

* ~i<.

(Courtesy Etta's Art Titles)
Titles may be either white upon black or black upon white. Due to the conditions
encountered in projection the white upon black is preferable.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 165

satisfactory projection under existing conditions. This
should not, however, run to a greater footage than that de-
termined by the professional scale.

Title Decoration. — So much for the bald word presen-
tation. Before starting the actual exposure, the title
should, as a rule, be "dressed up" to a certain extent. The
main title group with the first title may be made as elabor-
ate as one desires for few spectators stop to read them any-
way aside from the simple title of the film. The sub-titles,
or captions which are interspersed among the scenes
throughout the film may be decorated to a certain extent,
but as these titles are either essential to the film or so
superfluous as to render their removal advisable, this dec-
oration should be restrained to a point where it will not
detract from the legibility of the title itself. A title whose
ornamentation is entwined with the actual lettering makes
the title physically illegible, while one with ornamentation
so florid that the attention is distracted from the title may
well be called psychologically illegible. Neither condition
should be tolerated.

As the question of decoration naturally involves that of
the style of letters used, and the type of background, we
might as well consider all of these points at one time.

The background may be either a plain, conventional de-
sign, a subdued all-over design or a design appropriate to
the scene which follows.

The background serves as a support for the title ; by its
contrast with the letters of the title it renders the titles
clear and distinct. Its major purpose is to aid in the best
possible presentation of the message of the title. For this
reason the title which consists of plain white letters upon
a plain black ground is regarded by many technicians as
the ideal. It is true that this title is most legible and it
is also true that it is often read unconsciously, the spec-
tator reading it in the course of the film without con-
sciously noting that the action has slipped to title and
back to action against — but that requires superb edition!
In the more common type of film, the films which you and
I, dear reader, no doubt produce, this succession of dead
black titles becomes monotonous. For this reason we turn

166

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 167

to ways and means for relieving this monotony. The path
of the professional who encountered the same difficulty
may well be followed.

The words themselves may be of white, gummed paper
letters glued to the title card or they may be white cellu-
loid letters set in a specially prepared support. The last
named is perhaps the least satisfactory as the fabric of
the background with its numerous slots too often photo-
graphs just like a piece of fabric covering a slotted board.
One of the first requirements of the title card is that it be
uniformly black without scratch, break or mark of any
kind upon it except the letters and design of the title.

The finest of all title cards are the hand lettered ones.
This work is one which many amateurs will not care to
attempt, but those who have had some training in lettering
may very well try this work for themselves.

When the title is to be made directly upon positive stock
for inclusion in the two film positive, and made for home
development, the letters are written in black ink upon
white card, on the contrary if the title is made upon re-
versible film or if many copies are wanted, the letters are
in white upon black title card.

The best equipment for this work consists of a set of the
special pens used by card writers. These pens make lines
of specific width, and this width is not changed by pressure
upon the pen point. Only the best waterproof draughts-
man's ink should be used with a fine quality of white bris-
tol or special black title bristol.

Lines are laid out upon the card, making the marks as
faint as is possible and still have them visible. The faint-
est mark will photograph, but if these lines are very fine
and very light they will not be noticeable. It may be
remarked here that titles made upon half sheet (about 14
x 20) cards will photograph much better than the smaller
size. This is due to the fact that an error of l/20th inch
in a line is not as noticeable in this size as in a smaller
size. The larger the card the better will be the film title.

Using the lines laid out as guide lines, the letters are
worked in with a free and easy sweeping stroke. Some
little practice will be necessary before a satisfactory card

168 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

is secured, but it is quite within the ability of the usual
amateur to hand letter his own cards. Mistakes, when
not too serious may be corrected by the use of white or
black ink, according to the color of the card itself.

For making titles, one will need a supply of cardboard
or bristol board of the right size, one bottle each of white
and of black drawing ink, a set of lettering pens, a letter-
ing manual, and an assortment of practice paper. This
work will prove to be very fascinating for those who care
for designing, but for the amateur who has little or no
ability in drawing, this attempt is not advised.

The decoration of the title logically starts with the bor-
der. This border may be a simple line, a double line, a
curved and involved line or a line doubled upon itself in
elaboration of the old Celic motif, but a design of some
kind forming a border is a very good title decoration.
There should be some kind of standardization of title bor-
ders. All of your films may be made with similar borders,
but this leads to monotony. You may classify your films
and use a different border design for each class, you may
design a new border for each subject or you may have a
half dozen assorted designs and use them alternately in
all of your films. In this case it is a very good idea to
embody some kind of identifying seal, monogram or design
which is identical in all borders, which will definitely
show that it is a scene from one of your films. This idea
was carried to extremes in the old days of professionalism
when, as many of you remember the Pathe films all had the
"Pathe Booster" somewhere in the set. However, used in
moderation it adds individually to your films and gives
them a certain distinction.

In case you use an elaborate border design, this may be
made in the shape of a cut-out and the one design placed
in turn over the various titles to be used. In this way
hundreds of titles may be photographed by the use of a
half dozen or so border designs.

This decoration is usually sufficient, but the title motif
is often used. This consists of some object, drawing, or
similar device which has some more or less definite re-
lation to the scene, and which is photographed in the frame

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 169

with the title or the border itself may carry the motif.
This is sometimes an actual scene or large decoration in-
cluded by means of double exposure, but more often it is
a symbolical design drawn upon the title card. This motif
may be in one corner, it may occupy one side or the other
or both ends of the frame, it may surround the title itself,
it may cover the entire frame with the letters standing out
by virtue of their increased contrast, but wherever this
design is placed, it must not interfere with the full legi-
bility of the title.

This style of decoration was carried to such an extreme
in professional work that the public became tired of it.
The amateur should use it with discretion, and unless the
title writer happens to be an artist I should most earnestly
recommend that the motif be dropped from titles. In their
place, a process first popularized for amateur work by
Syril Dusenbery of San Francisco may be used with all
assurance that it will be fully satisfactory.

A still photograph is made of the scene which is to ap-
pear following the title. The negative of this scene is given
a correct exposure and then given a short development.
This negative is overprinted giving a photograph which
has a fine but short gradation with its highest light below
middle gray. This is used as a background, against which
the pure white letters stand out very well indeed. Suitable
backgrounds of this nature are published monthly in The
Amateur Movie Maker.

The background covered with a uniform, conventional
design, such as a tapestry design, is widely used by both
professionals and amateurs. Many amateurs use wall-
paper for this purpose and if a little care is used in the
selection of the design it works very well indeed.

In selecting wall paper for title work, remember that
colors have quite different values when photographed
than when seen by the eye. It is a very good idea to
make use of the monotone filter in making the selection.
The filter will give the approximate photographic tonal
value of any design, and is far more reliable than the
unaided eye.

Finally we may have the title prepared for us by a

170

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

professional title maker. This is obviously the source
from which the most satisfactory titles may be made,
and with the exception of those who wish to have the
pleasure of originating their own titles, the process
which is to be advised.

These firms make a specialty of designing and ex-
ecuting titles which will be the most appropriate for
your own films. They have practically every device
available which is used by the professional title writer.
Titles are prepared with uniform motif-borders, or the
more common double exposure type of title may be se-
cured if desired. In fact there is little limit to the titles
which may be obtained from such a studio. The cards
themselves are hand drawn in the case of the better
grade. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the
hand drawn letter has a quality which has not yet been
successfully imitated by any mechanical process. The
nearest approach to hand lettering is the printed card
made by using the "title" or "pastel" type face. These
cards are considerably less expensive than the hand
drawn card yet they are much better than the usual
cards made with the commonly used printer's types.

From the foregoing we shall select a type of letter and
a background to suit the film we have in hand. The letters
are applied to the background giving us the original of
the title. This must now be photographed.

BETTY'S INITIAL
APPEARANCE IN

THE MOVIES.

(Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
A "Kodak" title.

Title Photography. — There are two cardinal points to
be observed in photographing titles. The title card must
be parallel to the film surface with the optical axis of the
taking lens perpendicular to the center of the card, and
the card must receive uniform illumination. If the cam-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 171

era is Lipped up or down or if it faces the card at an angle,
no matter how slight, one side of the title will be larger
than the opposite side when projected. If the optical axis
is not directly opposite the center of the card the title will
not appear properly centered during projection and if the
lighting is not uniform, the title, when projected, will have
one side brighter than the other.

When the card is placed in proper position relative to
the camera, the lights are arranged. High-powered lights
are not necessary, although the arcs, if available, make
excellent title illuminants. With them, a small diaphragm
and slow crank may be used to secure the very best defini-
tion. Proper exposure is determined by the use of the
Cinophot or by making short test strips and developing
them. In this way the exposure is determined. When this
is done, the camera is operated until the predetermined
length of film has been exposed, using the basis of two
and one-half seconds to the foot of film for purposes of
calculation.

When this is done the title is ready for development and
then cutting into the film. This covers most of the ground
for title work in so far as the ordinary title is concerned.
There are, however, a number of titles which are made in
ways quite different from this.

Making Titles Coincidentally witji Scene Shots. —
It is often desirable that titles be made at the time the
film is exposed. This is most desirable in travel films,
under conditions which make title production the most
difficult. This has been overcome in various ways by dif-
ferent manufacturers. The Pathex camera has as an
accessory, the Pathexgraph. This is a folding frame and
auxiliary lens which may be carried in a vest pocket. It
is supplied with a number of small cards upon which the
title may be written. In this work it is best to use a rapid
drying, very black ink to produce the greatest possible
amount of contrast. The title is hand written as it lies in
the closed easel. The easel back has an opening of the
proper size and shape to "frame" the title. The card,
when written, is removed from the rack, reversed in the
easel and the easel opened. When this is done the sup-

172

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

porting collar is secured to the lens barrel, the title lens
dropped into place before the lens and the title photo-
graphed in the usual manner. Naturally, in this case not
more than four or five frames are exposed as the projector
stops automatically for the titles.

{Courtesy Bell & Howell)

The Filmo character title writer is a very compact but invaluable accessory. With it

not only titles, but closeups of various small objects may be made, cartoons may be

animated and similar work done.

The Bell & Howell Character Title Writer is not de-
signed to be actually carried in the field, but it can be
easily transported with the rest of the outfit and the day's
titles made each evening. This title writer is so arranged
that the hand may be shown upon the screen actually writ-
ing the title. The cord is plugged into any convenient
electric socket, the camera attached to the base, a card
inserted in the holder and the base raised to a comfortable
working position.

The lights are turned on, the exposure determined by
the use of the exposure meter, and the hand placed in
position. The left hand now controls the camera while the
right hand forms the titles. The camera should be run
at half speed on this work and the exposure calculated in
accordance with this. The reason for using half speed is
that otherwise the actual writing would take too long
upon the screen. Half speed makes the hand skim across
the screen very rapidly. If the hand is not to be shown
in actual motion or not at all, the title is written or
printed and placed in the easel. The exposure is now made
in the usual title manner. Thus this title board serves a
dual purpose. In addition to this it may be used for

173

174 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

photographing very small objects in a larger size than
would otherwise be possible.

It must be remembered that in making titles with such
devices that the focal length is lengthened considerably.
It is a good practice to make the exposure calculation and
to then add one-half point to the f value used. Thus if
the meter indicates that f 4.5 should be used, increase to
f 5.

Goerz Titles. — The Goerz mask box lends itself unusu-
ally well to the making of titles. These titles are drawn
upon tracing paper or matte celluloid. The letters may
be drawn in white upon black or black upon white. The
white letter upon the black ground makes a very tine title
indeed. We shall take this as an example.

The title is drawn in detail upon a sheet of drawing
paper. This enables any desired changes to be made as the
title is being drawn. Borders, designs and so forth may
be added at pleasure. When the drawing is complete, it is
ready to be traced. A piece of tracing cloth is placed over
the drawing and the outlines traced in ink. ' The back-
ground is now filled in between these lines, with a brush.
Be sure to use a sufficient quantity of drawing ink to ren-
der the background absolutely opaque.

The title drawn upon matte celluloid or tracing cloth is
now inserted in the special metal "frame" supplied with
the mask box. This is then inserted in the mask slot of
the Goerz mask box. It may be mentioned that fancy
"effect" masks may be used in the same manner.

The camera is now placed upon the sliding base. The
lens is focussed upon the title by means of the focussing
microscope, and the whole is pointed toward the sky, a
pure white reflector or a light. As the inside of the mask
box is shielded from the light and as the india ink is
opaque we have a black which is black, and a white which
represents the brightness of the sky. In short, we have a
contrast scale which is far beyond the power of the film
to record as actual tonal value. The consequence is that
we have a pure white letter upon an absolutely opaque
ground. This gives us the very finest title quality possible
to obtain.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 175

It will be seen that there are few accessories more versa-
tile than the Goerz effects.

A similar effect is secured by drawing the titles upon
glass or celluloid sheets and photographing by transmitted
light.

In title work there is an opportunity for the use of a
limited quantity of applied design. Thus if the film is
made in the Orient the letters may be formed of cunei-
form wedges, Arabic scrolls or Chinese dashes. If the
film shows the manufacture of pearl buttons, small but-
tons in rows may be made to spell out the title. If the
film depicts the events of a seaside vacation the titles
may be actually written in sand and photographed
when a low sun casts long shadows. There are endless
possibilities in the field of novelty titles, and every film
will have a certain atmosphere which will indicate the
possibility for the use of special titles.

Trick Titles. — In the line of novelty titles, there is one
division which offers unlimited opportunities. This is the
trick title, the trickery usually consisting of some form
of animation. In consideration of this work, it is better
to follow the system used in the discussion of trick work.

Revolving Circles. — A title is often shown in which
kaleidoscopic figures revolve about a central disc. This
effect is easily obtained by the use of two discs. One is of
cardboard and colored in uniform segments of a geometri-
cal pattern. The second disc is of celluloid and colored
with transparent non-actinic colors arranged in a comple-
mentary pattern. If the two discs are* revolved in oppo-
site directions the kaleidoscopic effect is at once apparent.
To block the center the central circle is painted dull black,
while the cut out mask has a larger and concentric circle
cut in it. The two discs are placed behind this mask.
This leaves only a narrow circle showing the weaving color
design. This same effect may be elaborated to any desired
extent.
Revolving and Exploding Star.

A large star is pivoted in the center of the background.
This is turned by means of animation. The single exposure
is used. The star, a five-pointed one, is turned one-fif-

176 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

teenth of its circumference between each two exposures.
That is, three frames are required to move one point to
the position originally occupied by the preceding point.
Continue this animation for about one foot or 40 frames.
Then pivot a small star just at the points of the large
star and, after using it for a guide, the large star is
removed and the small stars are rotated in the same man-
ner. After about 20 frames of this, one star is removed
and a few tiny paper stars scattered about, then eight
frames and this is repeated, and so on each eight frames
until the board is covered with small stars. Now with
each exposure move all stars upward slightly and con-
tinue this motion until the stars have been grouped to
form the desired title.

Upon the screen the large star will revolve rapidly, then
it will explode and in its place five smaller stars spin.
These in turn explode and the screen becomes covered
with small stars which dance about until they become
grouped into letters and words.
The Snow Title.

effect. — A miniature set is shown with a snowstorm
beginning. As the snow falls it piles up on an old fence
and forms the title.

method. — This is a rather difficult title, but its beauty
will amply repay the experimenter. A box is built which
has a screen wire bottom shaped to resemble the uneven
contours of a field. A toy house with two or three fan-
tastic toy trees are firmly tied down to this foundation.
The walls of the box have a scene painted upon them, while
the front of the box is a sheet of good plate glass. The
box should be about eighteen inches square and perhaps
a foot deep. The top has a curved shield leading into a
similar box behind the scene box. A strong electric fan
placed below the scene completes the mechanical arrange-
ment.

Small wooden splints are arranged to build a weathered
fence, the color being such that the sticks blend into the
background.

Small tufts of cotton are now placed carefully on these
splints in a position to form letters, and then white paper

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 177

confetti spread over the miniature scene until a heavy
snowfall is simulated. The camera is now placed before
this set upside down, the lights turned on and the camera
started. When the camera has been started, the fan is
switched on. The confetti will rise in a cloud, while the
surplus will be blown to the top, deflected by the hood at
the top of the box and fall into the rear box. Continue for
a sufficient length of time to register the storm. By the
end of five or six seconds most of the confetti should have
been blown out of the box, and if the cotton has been care-
fully placed upon the splints it also will have been blown
out of the box. When this film is developed and turned
end for end, the effect will be as has been described.
The Sandstorm.

An Arab encampment is seen in the desert, a sandstorm
comes up and whirling sand fills the air, this swirls about
and finally dies down. The camp has disappeared, the
sand has been ranged in dunes which form the letters of
the words. This is a most mysterious effect and one which
always excites admiration.

method. — For this purpose two backgrounds are
needed, one is the black title card which will bear the title
and the other is a formed sand base. Using compo board
as a base, tack and glue window screening to it formed in
the shape of dunes. Give this a coat of glue and sift sand
over it until the glue will take no more. Let this harden.
Then secure some of the small metal camels, Arabs, tents,
palm trees and similar objects which can be secured at
novelty shops and glue them in place to form an encamp-
ment.

The camera is suspended above the black card. Upon
this sand is carefully released from a paper cone to form
letters. If any sand is spilled in a wrong place, a soft
brush is used to bring it back into place. The camera is
suspended with the top of the camera toward the bottom
of the title, i. e., relatively up-side down. The camera is
started and allowed to run for a length of time sufficient
for the title to be read, then an electric fan is started and
directed at the sand. The sand, which should be fine,
white sea sand, is blown off the card, but before it is all

178 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

gone the camera is stopped and the card removed. The
second or miniature card is substituted for the title card,
and clean, fine, dry sand sifted over it until it is a half
inch deep or more about the miniature objects grouped on
the background. The camera is started and immediately
afterward the fan is started, and the camera allowed to
run until the miniature is fully revealed. When this title
is developed a few frames may have to be cut from the
portion of the film where the substitution took place, but
when this is done there should be a smooth transition from
the white sand letters on the black card to the revealed
desert scene. This all having been done in reverse, the
effect will be as described.

In filming the latter half of this scene, it will be neces-
sary, in order to secure proper perspective, to photograph
the miniature at an oblique rather than a vertical angle.
alternative: In case the miniature set is not used,
the effect will be a swirling sandstorm upon the screen
which blows down into letters. This is far easier to
make, but hardly as effective as the first method.

The Dancing Sand.

This is really a variation of the "Sandstorm," but the
effect is so widely different that it may be described as a
different title.

effect: The screen shows a beautiful geometric de-
sign which shifts into another and this into still others,
each change bringing the sand to a closer resemblance of
letters. Finally the title is formed in clean-cut letters of
sand.

method: For this some special equipment is needed.
A plate of thin but stiff brass sheeting about two feet
square, which should be darkened with some chemical
stain. A firm stand or other support which will not easily
vibrate, a steel rod one-half inch in diameter and some six
inches long and a violin or 'cello bow.

A hole is drilled in the exact center of the brass square.
A hole is drilled in the end of the steel rod and this is
tapped out. A plug is screwed into this hole with about
one-eighth inch projecting from the rod end. The hole in
the brass sheet is countersunk, and placed over the plug

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 179

and the plug riveted down. The plate is then soldered to
the shaft. This work can be done at any tinsmiths or
machine shop for a purely nominal sum.

This plate is placed in the wooden support, and this
secured firmly to the table. The plate is now supported
upon the end of the steel rod. The sand is sifted over the
plate in the form of letters just as was done in the sand-
storm. The title is given an exposure of proper duration
and then the bow is drawn over the edge of the plate. This
is continued with stroke after stroke. With each stroke
the sand dances and shifts and soon it takes definite geo-
metrical forms. As the bow is drawn over different parts
of the edge of the plate this form will change but remain
symmetrical. This gives us a very beautiful title.

caution: This title as was the case with the others
preceding is made in reverse. The camera is so ad-
justed that the bow never comes into the camera field.

The Metal Legion.

This is another variation of the sandstorm, but entirely
different from that effect.

effect: The screen is seen covered wTith black gran-
ules. These granules shift and pull together and soon the
granular form is changed to a crystalline form, the struc-
ture being needle-like. These needles rise on end and
march in martial ranks to a common heap, where they
merge with the rest of the mass. Soon these masses take
the form of letters and soon the letters are clearcut and
distinct.

method: This title is formed with iron filings. They
are sifted upon a white card ground, just as the sand was
sifted on the black card. When a sufficient footage has
been exposed, a powerful horseshoe magnet is drawm back
and forth beneath the card. The letters are disintegrated
and as the magnet is swept back and forth, from side to
side and in a circular path, the card becomes covered with
the long needle-like crystalline form of magnets. Then a
few finger taps on the edge of the card will reduce these
to the original powdered filings. This title, also, is made
in reverse.

180

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

The Jumping Acrobats.

This is a title which always finds favor with the specta-
tors and one which, if well made, may be used with almost
any light subject.

effect: A number of white paper silhouette figures
dance about on the ground in the foreground of the title
space. There is a jagged tree limb reaching across the
top of the screen. The figures jump upward and cling to
this limb, then others jump and cling to them, and so on,
until the whole swarm have formed letters by hanging
monkev-wise to this limb.

XXX

When the paper has been folded it is cut as shown in the small diagram above. When

the paper is unfolded a string of dolls will be disclosed as shown in the lower diagram.

These are cut apart at the elbows to form the individual dolls for use in making the

animated title described.

method : The first step is to cut out a number of paper
figures. This is done by folding a paper back and forth
upon itself several times and then cutting as shown in the
diagram. These figures are scattered all along the lower
edge of the title board with their feet about on the same
level. Expose eight frames of this, then start single-frame
animation. liaise one figure for each letter entire! v above

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 181

the crowd and expose, raise these to a second level and
raise another set to the first level. The third level is now
reached in a similar manner and the fourth level attaches
the hands of the figures to the limb. At this stage you
have for each letter of the title one figure attached to the
tree limb and three in the air. In addition to this anima-
tion the figures on the ground are raised and lowered and
changed with each exposure giving the effect of dancing
about. The next step is to attach the figures of the third
level to those upon the tree branch. As this title is made
lying flat with the camera suspended above it, one figure
is attached to the next by laying it so that the hands of the
lower figure are over the feet of the upper.

This is done until all vertical members of the letters are
formed. Then the remaining figures jump upward to take
their places along the cross bars of such letters as "H,"
"A," and so forth.

This title is straight animation and is not made in
reverse. Remember that it takes sixteen exposures to
make one second of projection. Time your movements
in accord with this. If the figure makes the jump in
four movements that means that upon the screen it will
leap up in one quarter second. This is about right for
this kind of motion. Careful animation will produce
many varied and beautiful effects, and is one of the
most fascinating phases of motion photography.

The Marksman.

This is one of the best types of title to use for illustrat-
ing hunting and camping scenes, and as it partakes of
cartooning it will be well received by the audience, espe-
cially if there are numerous sportsman friends included.

effect : A hunter is seen standing before a large, blank
billboard. He raises his rifle and takes aim. He fires. A
burst of smoke from the gun is followed by a spot and
splash upon the board like a bursting egg and the letter
appears. This is repeated until the title is complete.
Complete words may be substituted for letters to make the
title run through more quickly.

method : For this work a cartoon frame is necessary.
Make a shallow box about six inches deep and 20 inches

182 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

square. In the top of this box set a piece of plate glass
one foot square, and inside the box place one or two elec-
tric bulbs. In this case we shall use one stand for both
drawing and taking.

Next secure a package of unruled Avhite paper such as
is used in school notebooks. Lay one of these sheets upon
the glass so that the perforations come just above the edge
of the glass. Drill two holes and set Avooden or metal pins
in the top of the box. These pins serve to keep the various
sheets of paper in register. Finally you will need a dozen
or so sheets of thin, transparent celluloid cut to the same
size and perforated like the paper used.

Find a drawing of a hunter with his gun. Lay this upon
the glass, turn on the light and trace this figure upon a
piece of the drawing paper. Now draw the billboard in
the background, of such size that it fills about two-thirds
of the frame. In drawing the hunter have his gun by his
side. Then make three more identical drawings, but sketch
the gun in different positions and finally have the gun at
his shoulder pointing at the signboard.

Now place a piece of celluloid over the drawing of the
hunter with his levelled gun and at the muzzle draw a half
dozen pen strokes spreading out fan shape from the muzzle.
Using a second sheet repeat, but make the lines longer
with some "smoke" billows and make the third one with
the smoke covering half the frame. These sheets we call
(a), (b) and (c). Now upon a fourth celluloid sheet
draw a round spot, then this spot broken as in the usual
Fourth of July comic strip while the third sheet of this
series shows the spot bursting over the whole signboard.
Finally supply yourself with the necessary small gummed
letters to form the sign.

We are now ready for the actual exposure. The camera
is set up above the cartoon box and the first drawing of
the hunter and the billboard is placed upon the board with
the pegs through the perforations of the paper. This is
given eight frames exposure, using the single exposure
device of the camera as is used in all animation. To fol-
low the work figures will be given in parentheses to indi-
cate the total number of frames exposed. This initial

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 183

exposure gives us eight frames (8). We now substitute
the second drawing showing the gun slightly off the
ground. (No lights are lighted inside the box, the usual
title side lights are used.) This is given two frames (10),
then the third gun drawing is substituted and two more
frames exposed (12) and finally the gun in position at
the shoulder is shown and given two exposures ( 14 ) . This
gives us almost one second for this entire motion.

The drawing of the hunter with gun leveled is now left
in place for the entire title. Celluloid sheet or "cell" (a)
is now placed over the drawing and given two frames
(16), then this is removed and cell (b) put in place with
two frames exposure (18) and then cell (c) is given for
two frames (20). The next step is to substitute the spot
cell (d) with two frames (22), then in turn the three
explosive cells (e), (f), and (g) and given two frames
each, making a total of (28) frames or something over
one and one-half seconds for the entire action. Now
remove the last cell and glue the first letter or word in
place and give four exposures (32), now each 18 frames
will add a new letter or word. If words are used this will
approximate reading speed so that if a complete word is
given for each "shot" the completed title need only be run
for five seconds after completion. If the title has been a
five-word one use one second for preliminaries, 90 frames
or almost six seconds for the five words and three sec-
onds of the complete title, a total of ten seconds for a five-
word animated title, which is quite ample.
The Volcano.

This may be made quite impressive if proper care is
taken. The print should be made upon red base film or
tinted red after development.

effect: Smoke rolls up across the screen in dense
clouds. Letters become faintly seen through the smoke.
The smoke fades as the letters become more and more dis-
tinct and finally the letters are formed of curling, rolling
clouds of smoke illuminated with weird light while the
background is black.

method: This effect also requires some rather exten-
sive preparation, but it is surely worth the trouble. A box

184 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

is made about eight inches deep and whose width is equal
to the length of the title cards. The height of the box is
one foot greater than the width of the title card. The
title is cut from the card, leaving openings to correspond
to the letters. Do not cut stencil fashion, but cut the let-
ters out entirely. Then glue a sheet of celluloid to the
back of this card and upon this glue the interior parts of
such letters as "O," "A," "R," and so forth. Set this card
in the front of the box which has been prepared by cutting
out an opening to correspond with the lettered portion of
the card.

Electric lights are placed inside the box at the bottom
with reflectors arranged to throw the light upward. The
top of the box is left open, and behind the cut-out title
board are hung in rotation from front to back: a plain
black sheet of title card, a heavy gray paper sheet, three
sheets of white writing paper, a piece of chiffon weighted
to hang without wrinkling. These are placed as close
together as possible.

At a chemists' supply house secure four ounces of hydro-
chloric acid (caution — this is a powerfully corrosive acid
and will burn painfully if even a small drop is allowed to
fall upon the skin), and a similar quantity of stronger
ammonia, two 50 cc, beakers, two long, plain pipettes
with rubber bulbs. These pipettes are somewhat like
elongated medicine droppers.

Bore a one-inch hole in the rear of the box which is
about one-half inch higher than the tops of the beakers
which are placed inside the box, side by side.

Set the camera up in front of this box and focus it care-
fully by the use of the reflex focusser. In front of the box,
at the bottom, set two butter dishes side by side. When
ready to start the photography, which should be made at
half speed, light the lights inside the box as well as the
usual side lights, then, using the pipettes, place a few
drops of acid in one butter plate and a like quantity of
ammonia in the other. Fumes will rise which will photo-
graph nicely, and which are harmless. Photograph this
for a second or so, allowing the camera to continue its
action automatically.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 185

Working as rapidy as possible, place a pipette full of
acid in one beaker and ammonia in the other. The pipettes
are inserted through the hole in the rear of the box. If
there are two workers, so much the better. One will keep
the beakers supplied with chemicals, causing the "smoke"
while the other manipulates the drops.

The black cardboard is removed from the box with a
quick upward motion. The letters will then be shown
faintly. The gray paper is now removed, the butter plates
are removed from the front and the side lights extin-
guished, ending the smoke from the front of the box. The
other drops are removed in quick succession, leaving the
chemical smoke rolling behind the celluloid. Place a card-
board over the top of the box, and fan the top with the
hand, making the smoke swirl. Continue for as long a
time as is necessary to complete the title footage. Develop
and print upon red stock.

caution: Make tests to see if the illumination is
sufficient. If not, a small folding arc such as the Traut-
Minima may be placed inside the box, or an arc such as
the Cameralite or Little Sunny should be placed at the
rear of the box.

Animated Titles for Scenic Films.

This is a means of adding considerable interest to scenic
views and avoiding the monotony of the usual black and
white title. It is, however, applicable only to those films
made, developed and printed at home.

effect : A soft shot of a waterfall is shown. As we
watch there is a shimmering glitter in the water, a ball
jumps out followed by a stream of others forming a glit-
tering line across the scene which then changes to the title
of the scene.

method : This is simple animation combined with dou-
ble printing. The first requirement is a negative film of
the scene with the correct footage. Of course, the neces-
sary footage of a longer scene may be used, but the mini-
mum usable footage is that of the title as it will appear
upon the screen. The second requirement is an enlarge-
ment of one frame of a size equal to the title card used,
and as this work is of such peculiar nature a fairly small

186 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

enlargement is to be used, say 4 x 5 or 5 x 7. For the
actual photography the character title writer may be used
to very good advantage while the enlargement may be made
with that valuable little instrument, the Dremmette
motion picture enlarger.

Using the enlargement as a guide, and celluloids as
bases, faint outlines are drawn indicating the place for the
shimmering effect to take place in the water. Then an-
other is shown where this effect spreads, a third shows
an increasing area and this is continued until the shimmer
has been extended to a line entirely across the frame.
This should make use of at least twenty "cells." Now we
come to the actual photography.

An unmarred black card is placed upon the easel, which
must be horizontal. Upon this the cells are placed for the
actual exposure. This is rather particular work and re-
quires a nice adjustment of lights for the best results. An
arc light should be used and this light should fall from
one side only. The actual material to be photographed
is the decorative material sold in art shops as "metallic."
It is a finely ground foil and should be in silver color mixed
with a very small amount of varicolored metallics such as
is sold under the name of "Cashmere. "

The outlines as shown in the cell drawing are filled with
these metallics in very limited quantity. In fact, the indi-
vidual flakes should be apparent. One frame is exposed,
the cell is lightly tapped to slightly change the position of
the individual flakes without changing their relative posi-
tions, a second exposure is made and so on for four expo-
sures. Now the second cell is placed upon the easel and
four more frames exposed, then cell number three and
so on until a total of eighty frames have been exposed upon
twenty cells. This gives five seconds' screen time. Now
the twenty-first cell is prepared by placing it upon num-
ber twenty and pasting the white letters of the title proper
to it, This is then given the proper title fool age and the
photography is done. However, this is but half the task.

This film is carefully developed for a longer time than
usual in a slow-working developer. This will tend to give
the greatest possible contrast in this film; If the film has

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 187

been properly developed and properly exposed, the por-
tions which are not component parts of the design will be
absolutely clear celluloid.

This is dried and polished as explained in the experi-
menter's chapter. When this is done the film is ready for
the final step in its preparation.

The printer will have to have an auxiliary film roll sup-
port arranged, for we are going to run three films through
it simultaneously. The negative of the scene itself is
threaded into the printer in the usual manner with the
dull side out. On top of this is placed the title film with
its celluloid or polished side next to the dull side of the
scenic negative, and finally the positive raw stock is placed
in the printer with its dull surface facing the dull surface
of the title negative. This combination is now run through
the printer. It is evident that the negative will be printed
upon the positive except in those places where the positive
stock emulsion is protected by the black design of the title
negative. It is furthermore evident that as the negative
( scenic ) is separated from the positive stock by a distance
equal to the thickness of the film that this scene will be
printed in a soft manner. Thus when this final print is
developed we will have a soft, diffused scene, upon this
the sharp, glittering metallics will appear to the greatest
advantage, giving a title of great brilliance.

It is seen that there are endless possibilities in the mak-
ing of titles. A few experiments will make the amateur
familiar with the modus operandi of animation, cartoon
work and similar manipulation, which are, after all, very
simple, their only difficulty being that they require tedious
manipulation.

Film Plates. — Many amateurs make a practice of using
stock titles, the idea being taken from the professional
producer. This is a very good idea and as a precedent we
may point to the use of book plates by these members of
society who fully appreciate the value of books. As there
is no question but that the home film will prove to be a
serious rival of the publishing business, films may and
should be regarded as a form of book. Let us then start
our film libraries correctly by designing a proper "Film-

188 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

plate." If a copyright is desired this may be secured by
sending two copies of the design with two dollars to the
Patent Office at Washington. It should be specified that
this drawing is not for purposes of publication.

As this title will be used repeatedly for every film in
your library, it deserves the expenditure of some time and
thought. In the first place, a cutout must be left if it is
to serve as a main title, but this is hardly the best way in
which the title can be used. The main title should partake
of the character of the film to be shown. Moreover, as
these films are more usually record films than anything
else, the title should convey certain definite information.
For example, let us consider a film made in New Orleans.
Our main title could very appropriately be decorated with
a heraldic ribbon design, with the arms of the French
Empire as the central ornament and with Fleur de Lys as
motifs. The text would be —

NEW ORLEANS

The Capital of the Southland
December 15th to 30th 1927

This title would be followed by the "Film-plate" title —

From the library of
JAMES HENRY WORTHINGTON

Some amateurs make use of the familiar phrase uEx
Libris" but this usage is not yet fully established. The
choice of phrases will be left to the individual.

The design of this title is usually heraldic, and cer-
tainly, if the amateur is fortunate enough to have undis-
puted right to the use of arms, they may be incorporated
most appropriately, but for the sake of decent taste, it
is to be hoped that those who have not such right will not
follow this suggestion. It is true that there is no law in
this country prohibiting the use of arms by any individual,
but such unauthorized use is, to say the least, in execrable
taste.

When such arms are used, the shield alone may be incor-
porated in the borders of the captions, but in such case all

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 189

of the appurtenances should be omitted. In any case a
simple monogram may be substituted.

The final scene of the film should fade out. In case a
fade has not been incorporated in the film itself, a "white
fade" may be made in the printer. In this case, the "Finis"
title is made with black lettering upon a white card and
photographed with a fade-in as has been explained. In
printing this fade-in is placed over the termination of the
last scene. This will cause the scene to gradually lighten
until the final title is shown in black upon the white
screen. As this tends to a harsh lighting effect, this final
title is given a long fade-out, so that the screen is finally
black.

The final title appropriately incorporates a scrolled
"Finis" and this changed or faded into the maker's mono-
gram.

We have given considerable space to the subject of titles,
but their importance cannot be overestimated. Good titles
and good edition will make a presentable film of any sub-
ject provided the photography is at least passable. When
the full significance of this statement is grasped, the im-
portance of titling will be appreciated. We are all familiar
with the dull, sodden, impossible films made by so many
amateurs who attempt to interpret their production by
a running fire of comment. This is very irritating. In
fact, no film is ever presented to its best advantage with-
out music and a hodge podge of music and comment is
maddening.

If the amateur wants to secure the best possible results
from his motion photography he will carefully edit the
film and will then further improve it by the careful prepa-
ration of every title from the main title to

"FINIS."

CHAPTER EIGHT

TRICK WORK WITH THE MINIATURE CAMERA

Trick work has a very important place in motion pic-
ture photography, and one which is not correctly under-
stood by the average amateur. Trick work is used, not to
secure effects of unnatural aspect alone, but more often it
is used to present a natural effect which could not be
secured by straight photography, and it is used for many
instructional and educational purposes. Trick work, in
• short, includes every phase of motion picture photography
except straightforward, normal speed photography.

There is an "alphabet" of trick work, a certain limited
number of basic manipulations, from which all conceivable
camera effects are secured. We must remember that mo-
tion picture trick work is used, not so much for clowning
and slap-stick as for securing impressive effects, and to this
end all means are adapted. We thus find camera manipu-
lation, printer manipulation and various mechanical
effects which have nothing to do with either camera or
printer directly. Thus reversed film travel is a camera
effect, travelling matte effects are produced in the print-
ing while glass paintings are used before the camera and
are not strictly within the bounds of photographic manipu-
lation at all.

In this chapter we shall dwell more upon the possible
camera manipulations with some consideration of the
printer manipulation possible with the amateur printers
now available, but mechanical effects will be ignored com-
pletely.

Camera Manipulation. — In camera manipulation we
may change (1) the direction of film travel, (2) the area
of the film exposed to the light, (3) the speed of the travel,
and (4) the amount of light which falls upon the film.
From these four elements we construct certain secondary

190

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 191

units and from them, in turn, the whole structure of
camera manipulation is built. We shall now consider
these in detail in their relation to amateur use, and with
full cognizance of the limitations of the amateur camera
as available to the amateur of to-day.

Thus, in the order given in the foregoing paragraph we
have :

(a) Forward travel (1)

(b) Reverse travel (1)

(d) Restricted portion exposed (2)

(e) More than normal rate of travel (3)

(f) Normal rate of travel (3)

(g) Less than normal rate of travel (3)

(h) Alteration of the amount of light admitted by
the lens (4)

It may be stated that any camera manipulation may
be performed with the amateur camera provided it does
not require that the film be carried through the camera
in reversed direction. Some effects are somewhat diffi-
cult, and others are easy, but this is practically the only
one which is absolutely impossible with the small cam-
era. However, even those effects which are usually
considered as being dependent upon a reverse film
travel, may be, with a little trouble, so closely dupli-
cated with the amateur camera that all practical needs
of the amateur production are met.-

Those effects which require this are the double and
multiple exposures, lap dissolves, ghosts, visions and
similar effects, every one of which can be performed
with the miniature camera. It is true that the proced-
ure will not exactly duplicate professional procedure
and may entail some rather tedious work, but the final
effect will be quite satisfactory as we shall see later in
this chapter.

Starting with the simplest camera manipulations, we
will consider first of all :
Stop Camera.

This is just what the name implies, that is, the camera
is stopped abruptly, some change made in the set and
camera operation resumed.

192 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

effect. — A young married couple are having their first
breakfast alone, he reaches for the bread plate, but is
watching his bride and sticks his fingers into his coffee
cup, he jumps and then reaches again for the bread plate,
just as his fingers reach the plate, it changes to the coffee
and as often as he reaches for the bread plate it changes
to the coffee just as his fingers reach it. Alternative, a
man reaches for a cigarette humidor and picks up an ash
tray, and as often as he changes, the substitution takes
place. Other alternatives include a stein of beer eluding
the grasp of a drunken man, the substitution of a man for
a girl just as another man starts to embrace her and other
effects, practically all of which are used for comic effects.
This is also used for ghosts, demons and similar super-
natural effects.

method. — To take the first example we make straight
film until we arrive at the place where the groom reaches
for the bread after burning his fingers in the coffee. Just
as his hand reaches the bread we stop the camera, change
places with bread and coffee and proceed. This is the
procedure followed in each instance.

caution: In this work all actors must remain abso-
lutely motionless during the period the camera is not in
operation. Otherwise the sudden jump due to changed
position would spoil the miraculous effect of the trick.
This motionless attitude of actors is common in many
effects and is referred to as "freezing."

Reverse Motion.

There are few single effects which can provide as much
interest and amusement as the reverse camera, and when
combined with slow motion, such films often form the most
highly valued single items in the film library. As this is
a versatile trick we must consider several effects in one
group.

effect. — (a) Normal motion is shown in reverse. Thus
Ave have a swimming scene, where fancy diving is the fea-
ture. We see a swimmer suddenly rise from the water a
short distance, poise and sink from sight. Then we see a
turmoil upon the surface of the water, the diver rises feet
first, ascends through the air in a graceful curve and lands

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 193

lightly upon the diving board. Such an effect always pro-
vides the utmost interest and evidently spectators never
tire of watching it, even after they are let into the secret.

(b) Miraculous effects. The Fisherman and the Genie.
Here we see the fisherman by the water's edge. He is a
modern disciple of Walton, dressed in modern sport togs
and equipped with the latest in rod, reel, and so forth.
He lights a twig fire and a cloud of smoke rises. As he
starts back in surprise the cloud spreads to huge dimen-
sions and then pulls together and runs back into the fire
which goes out even though the fisherman tries again to
light it. He scratches his head and starts toward the
water's edge. There he sees a splash and throws up his
hand. A fish lands in it. Then all he does is to stand by
the shore and catch the fish as they jump out at him, de-
positing each one in his creel as he catches it. When the
creel is full he picks up his rod, looks at his fish and
starts home.

(c) Thrillers. (This is rendered far more effective when
combined with slow camera). A man is seen jumping from
side to side in a road while bearing down upon him is an
automobile coming at breakneck speed, also zig-zagging
trying to avoid him. As the machine is on the point of
running him down, he leaps upon the fender and is carried
far over the bonnet of the machine by the force of the
impact. He is carried on out of the picture.

method. — (a) As all reversed effects are secured, when
using the amateur cameras, by holding the camera upside
down it is evident that a spring driven camera is essential.
The first effect is made by simply holding the camera up
side down and filming the scene as usual, slow motion
being used if preferred.

(b) This effect requires somewhat more care. The film
is shot "straight" up to the fullest expanse of the smoke
cloud. This is formed by a motion picture "smoke-pot"
which can be secured from any fire- works manufacturer
for a few cents. When this is done the camera is stopped.
The fire is now relaid and time allowed for the smoke to
blow away and the same thing is repeated in reverse, but
this time the fisherman does very little moving. Do not

194 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

allow any flame to show on the match or you will see him
pull a lighted match out of the fire,, strike it and thus re-
turn to its unused condition. When this is done you return
to straight motion, the fisherman arises and goes to the
edge of the lake where he looks out over the water. Now
reverse again and have him reach into the creel, pull out
a fish and toss it into the water. This is repeated as often
as desired. The final shot is made "straight." When this
film is returned to you developed, you will find that when
projected it shows nothing but some scenes upside-down
upon the screen. You then cut the film apart, taking each
reversed scene by itself. These scenes are joined back into
the film in just the position they originally occupied, but
turned end for end to bring the tops of the frames in the
correct position. This naturally brings the end of the
action where the beginning should have been and you have
your reversed motion.

(c) This effect is quite simple provided you operate
the camera at a very slow rate of speed. The actor takes
his place upon the fender, bending far over the bonnet, the
machine backs into the camera field and at a predeter-
mined point the actor rises to a standing position, throws
his arms up wildly and jumps from the fender to the road,
always facing the machine. He lands as awkwardly as
possible without falling, then dances back and forth across
the road while the automobile starts zigzagging the in-
stant the actor jumps, continuing its way backward out
of the picture. As the slow camera will speed up all mo-
tion, and as the reverse will show us this action in just its
reverse order we see how simple it is to film the most
thrilling stunt pictures without endangering any of our
actors in the slightest degree.
Stop Motion.

Stop motion is a term very loosely applied. Strictly
speaking it means single exposures made in rapid succes-
sion or a camera speed of roughly one-eighth normal. In
practice, however the term is used to designate anything
from about half speed down to the slowest continuous ex-
posures. It is accomplished in variable speed cameras by
using the half speed drive and in hand cranked cameras by

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

195

turning the camera very slowly. In single exposure cam-
eras it may be accomplished by making single exposures
in very rapid succession.

effect. — A traffic snarl is shown in which the various
vehicles and pedestrians dart about at about sixty miles
per hour, to the (apparent) imminent danger of their
lives.

method. — Set up the camera in the usual way and make
the exposure at the slowest rate of exposure the camera is
capable of. The slower the rate of exposure the greater the
apparent speed upon the screen.

caution : As a slow rate of exposure means a greatly
increased time of exposure, this must be taken into con-
sideration in calculating the exposure to be given. If
this is not done the stop motion picture will be badly
overexposed. Stop motion has really few practical ap-
plications. In case a very slowly moving subject is be-
ing filmed, half speed may be used to increase the
screen rate, thus saving film and keeping the subject
from becoming monotonous, but aside from such effects,
the manipulation has few except comic uses.

{Courtesy Bell & Howell)
The Filmo character title writer ready for operation.

Animation.

Animation is a greatly exaggerated stop motion. In
this work the exposure ceases to be continuous and be-
comes intermittent. Animation is one of the least often

196 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

used and one of the most potentially useful of all manipu-
lations available for amateur use.

Through animation we make moving titles, trick titles,
animated cartoons, moving diagrams, and similar effects.
We can, through its use, infuse life into dolls, toys and
other inanimate objects. We can endow the nursery toy
chest with life, and we can make the characters in the
comic sections take on semblance of life. We can make
diagrammatic drawing go through the phases common to
the mechanisms which they represent and we can show the
frontiers of civilization being pushed over the surface of
a map. In short, we can give automatic movement to any
object, whether solid or plane.

As this is a phase of trick work rather than a specific
element, we can hardly pause to consider even one each of
the typical effects possible, so we will immediately take up
the consideration of the procedure followed in animation.

The first requisite is a camera which will enable us to
expose one individual frame of film at a time. Also, as
most of this type of work will be done in the studio, proper
lights will be needed. If the cinematographer has among
his equipment the arc lights recommended for interior and
title use, these will do admirably, but it is quite possible
to make animation films by the use of lights of much lower
intensity than would otherwise be possible, as an exposure
of any desired duration may be used, so we may give five
or ten or even thirty seconds exposure if necessary, but
lights which allow an exposure of not more than five sec-
onds will be found more convenient than less intense ones.

It is assumed that the subject has already been selected
and that the background and properties are all assembled
ready for work. The lights are set as is the camera, and
everything is ready for the actual work of animation.

The next problem which confronts us is that of deter-
mining the amount of absolute movement to be given each
object between each two exposures. This problem is hardly
reducible to an exact arithmetical equation, but we may
approximate the correct answer by comparing the motion
with that of a normal human being. A soldier marching
will take about two paces per second, covering a distance

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 197

of very slightly less than his own height. This takes six-
teen frames of film. If we are animating an eight inch
doll, we will give each stride eight frames, or move the
leg one-eighth of a stride for each frame. These strides
will be just less than four inches in extent for quick time,
and for a more leisurely walk we will give the stride ten
or twelve frames, covering about two inches. In this way
we can adapt practically any normal motion to that of
dolls, cartoons and so forth.

In connection with this determination it is always well
to rehearse the act or a part of it. This will aid in arriving
at proper motion determination and will also aid in secur-
ing proper synchronization of the motions of the various
subjects and actors appearing on the screen. When the
rehearsal is complete, make a test to see if the animation is
natural. This test may be only four or five feet of film.

If these preliminaries are all good, you can start the
real shot. Set the scene for the beginning of the act. Have
your scenario before you. Start the lights going, make the
first exposure and then start animation. Each actor or
object which is to move is now moved slightly. The leg
is moved through one-eighth or one-tenth of a stride, the
arm is swung to correspond, and any other actor who is
also in motion has the proper fractional part of a move-
ment given to it. The second exposure is now made and
the process repeated. With the completion of the tenth
frame the doll should have been moved through one com-
plete stride with corresponding motions.

When attempting this kind of work for the first time,
it is well to make use of a piece of normal film of a
person walking as a guide. This will give you a frame
by frame model to follow in arranging the various posi-
tions of your dolls or other characters.

One of the most fascinating divisions of this work is
the motion picture version of the popular "table-top"
photography. With dolls and small figures which are
so much in evidence these days, very amusing comedies
may be performed with a row of books or other similar
objects forming the background. In fact there is no
practical limit to the variety or form which animation
may take.

198 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Time Condensation.

Time condensation is but an exaggerated form of ani-
mation. In animation the inter-exposure interval is de-
termined by the time required to arrange the puppets
after each exposure. In time condensation this inter-
exposure interval is determined by the rate of movement
of the object photographed.

Time condensation consists of so photographing any
object that its apparent rate of motion upon the screen
will be many times, even hundreds of times as rapid as it
is in real life. Thus we can show a plant grow from a
seedling to full maturity, bloom, fruit and die, and all in
the space of a few moments. This variety of motion photo-
graphy may be applied to any slowly moving object. It
is diametrically opposed to slow motion, in that while the
slow motion renders visible motion which is so rapid that
it is invisible, the time condensation makes visible motion
which is so slow that it is invisible. The most common
use is such as that given in the example, the growth of
plant life.

The matters of setting up the camera, arranging the
lighting and so forth are the same as in animation. There
are in addition a few points which must be considered.

This work must be done indoors. Provision must be
made for admitting sunlight to the plant without moving
it from its position in front of the camera. Both camera
and subject must be arranged so that they may be left un-
disturbed throughout the entire filming of the subject, and
the lights should have their positions marked so that they
may be replaced with approximate accuracy for each ex-
posure or series of exposures.

Let us make use of a specific example. Suppose we
plant a bean in moist soil and wish to film its growth.
We find, by experiment, that this particular variety of
bean requires ten days for the amount of growth which
we wish to show upon the film. We also find that it
takes 48 hours for the sprout to thrust up the earth
above it. We then plant a bean and prepare for the
opening shots forty-eight hours later. We know that
our film will be completed in ten days, but before start-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 199

ing the actual work we wish to know just how much
time will elapse between each two exposures.

We decide that we want this film to run about 4 min-
utes on the screen. That means one hundred feet or
4000 frames of sixteen millimeter film, in round num-
bers. We find that plants do not grow as rapidly during
the night as during the day, so we decide to give double
the number of shots per hour during daylight that we
do at night, using six o'clock as the dividing line.

We will assume that inasmuch as we have 7,200 min-
utes of daylight and the same period of night, that we
may take as a basis for our calculation 7,200 daylight
units and 3,600 night units. (The night unit, remember,
is twice as long as the day unit.) This gives us a total of
10,800 units to be filmed upon 4,000 frames. There-
fore we divide 10,800 by 4,000 and disregarding smaller
fractions we have 2% as the quotient. As our basic
unit is the minute, this gives us 2% minutes as the basic
inter-exposure interval.

This gives us 24 exposures per hour during the day
and 12 per hour during the night. As we have 120 hours
of each this gives us (120 x 24) plus (120 x 12) equals
4320. This is too much for this would require 108 feet
of film and we do not wish to exceed our 100 foot spool,
so we try three minutes. This means twenty exposures
per hour for day and ten for night. Now (120 x 20)
plus (120 x 10) equals 3600 frames of 90 feet of film,
leaving just enough for errors and addition to the foot-
age if this is found to be necessary.

Now, using a large face seconds clock such as a dark-
room timer, mark the three minute intervals. As each
one is reached make the exposure. If you forget one,
make two exposures at the next interval, and if you
take a half minute to turn on the lights, make the ex-
posure and turn the lights off, you will have only 2!/2
minutes until the next exposure. According to this
schedule an exposure is made every three minutes. This
does not take into account the time necessary for the
camera manipulation, which is automatically taken care
of by the continuous motion of the clock hand.

High Speed or Slow Motion Photography.

Slow motion photography is so well known that a de-
scription of the effect is not necessary here. It may be

200 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

well to mention, however, that there are variations in the
speed employed. We have so-called slow-motion pictures
taken by almost every conceivable camera speed from
double normal up to sixteen times normal in portable cam-
eras and hundreds of times normal with the large research
cameras. The first step then is to determine the rate at
which the camera is to be operated. In this we have two
considerations. The faster the camera speed the slower
will be the screen speed, also the faster the camera speed
the more film will be used per second. It is therefore no
more than sensible to determine the slowest speed which
will serve our purpose and to then use that speed for the
conservation of film.

Karely if ever will the amateur desire to use a speed
greater than eight times normal, and in most cases this
will be faster than really necessary. There will be many
times when double speed will give just the desired amount
of slowing. After a careful consideration of the needs in
slow motion photography, it has been found that for ama-
teur use, a speed of four times normal will give in the
great majority of cases just the amount of slowing best
suited to depict the action at its best without producing
that peculiar nervous tension so often noticed in the spec-
tator who is viewing an extremely slow motion film.

Leaving aside the reduction of standard negatives to
sixteen millimeter positive, the amateur has three cameras
available for making slow motion films. These are the
Filmo and the Victor, and the DeVry. The Filmo double
speed model is provided to make exposures at 16 and 32
per second, giving a half-time slowing. A special Filmo is
also made which operates at 8 times normal speed only.
This model can be used for nothing but slow motion pic-
tures. The Victor camera occupies a position midway be-
tween these. It makes pictures at normal speed and at
four times normal, giving in one instrument both normal
and the most valuable slow motion speed, while the DeVry
has similar speeds.

In chapter three we gave considerable space to the
discussion of slow motion as applied to normal motion
photography. To avoid repetition we will at once pass

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 201

over those phases and consider slow motion as it is
used to supplement other manipulation or to secure
obviously unnatural effects.

Many amateurs will be tempted to make shots of minia-
tures. They will carefully arrange railway wrecks and
steamship disasters, and when shown upon the screen
these shots will look just exactly like the original — toys !
And, even with details obscured by soft focus lenses the
toy appearance persists, and the poor amateur becomes
disgusted with motion photography.

Tie a weight to a string one foot long and another
to a string two yards long, forming two pendulums.
Start these swinging. Which swings faster? In waves
of water and in the motion of vessels, it will be seen
that the larger the mass in motion the slower the rate
of that motion. We can thus see that if we are to pre-
sent miniature shots in a convincing manner, we must
slow down the rate of motion. A sharply detailed shot
of a toy boat taken at high speed, giving a slow, pon-
derous motion is far more convincing than a softened;
detailless shot made at normal speed.

Sloiv motion is essential to the successful filming of
miniature shots.

Insect Photography. — There is another use for the
slow motion process which holds infinite possibilities. This
is the photography of insect life. For this work a complete
set of Goerz effect accessories is essential.

This work is really a combination of low power photo-
micrography and slow motion. By the use of the Goerz
reflecting focussing device, the lens mount is lengthened
to a sufficient extent to permit the photography of objects
only a foot or so from the camera. The prism enables the
cinematographer to secure the most critical focus and to
arrange the composition to suit his needs. The mask box
gives him the necessary long sunshade and permits mask-
ing for double exposure making possible the introduction
of human beings in the same frame with the huge insects.
Hundreds of similar uses will suggest themselves to the
amateur of inquiring turn of mind.

202 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Photography From Moving Support. — The slow mo-
tion will also greatly improve films taken from moving
railway train, automobile and similar locations. The ex-
treme speed of the foreground motion has heretofore made
these films anything but satisfactory, but by slowing them
down, a much more satisfactory effect is obtained. Scenes
of this character as well as panoramic films become beau-
tiful examples of the motion picture art when made with
slow motion, and for this purpose the slow motion camera
will inevitably become popular.

There are certain phases of slow motion work which im-
press themselves upon us immediately. The fact that slow
motion depends for much of its effectiveness upon contrast
becomes at once apparent. In order to secure this it is
essential that the slow motion shots be interspersed in the
normal footage. This may be done in the editing as ex-
plained in the part of this book devoted to that work, but
a camera which will take both normal and slow motion
gives us a decided advantage in enabling us to make the
shots in alternation as we desire and upon the same film
roll. It is also a decided convenience to have the control so
arranged that the change from one speed to the other can
be quickly and easily made. In the Victor camera a half
turn of the starting button accomplishes this result. In the
Filmo a quarter turn of a speed control indicator on the
front board does it. The DeVry speed change is as simply
made. In neither camera is it necessary to open the cam-
era or make any changes in the mechanism.

There is probably no phase of motion picture photog-
raphy which is so interesting, which offers so many pos-
sibilities of infinite variation, which is capable of furnish-
ing as much unusual information as the slow motion. The
cost of the extra film used is negligible in comparison with
the great benefits derived. For this reason the writer
urges each reader to provide himself with a camera
capable of making slow motion films.
Double Exposure.

Double exposure may be divided into two classes (a)
those made without masks and (b) those made with masks.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 203

The double exposure, and the multiple exposure (which is
the same thing carried farther) makes possible many
supernatural effects such as visions, ghosts, duplication
of roles by a single actor and similar effects. Briefly it
consists in exposing a portion, only, of the film, after
which the film is rewound, the exposed portion of the film
protected from light and the remainder or a second por-
tion exposed. This is continued until the entire film has
been exposed. Another form of double exposure consists
of exposing the whole film, and then, after rewinding,
making a second exposure upon the same (exposed) film.
Double Exposure without Masks.

effect. — A man is discovered sitting in an arm chair,
smoking. The room is dimly lighted, and the walls of
dark color, possibly wainscoted or panelled in dark oak.
Suddenly a ghostly, transparent figure is seen at the rear
of the room. While distinctly apparent, this figure is
sufficiently transparent for details of the background to
be seen through it. The man looks at this figure, jumps
from his chair, thrusts his hands at the figure while turn-
ing his head away. The figure vanishes and the man sinks
into the chair.

method. — This effect is slightly more complicated than
the preceding tricks, but quite within the ability of the
careful amateur. This scene is made aby count." That is,
the motions of the actor are made at predetermined periods
which are shown by means of a seconds timer. One of the
most useful accessories for this work consists of a large or
"giant" type of interval timer. This is a clock with a face
ten inches or more in diameter, and with a single hand
which makes a complete revolution in one minute. This
is hung where both cameraman and actor can see it. The
actor goes through his action in rehearsal. The clock is
started at the beginning of this rehearsal and upon a card
the cameraman notes the clock reading as follows (a)
appearance of spectre (b) actor sees spectre (c) actor
rises (d) actor thrusts his hands at spectre (e) spectre
disappears (f) actor sinks into chair. Note that in this
rehearsal the spectre does not appear, so entries (a) and

204 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

(e) are entered at those periods which the action of the
actor makes most appropriate.

Now the camera is prepared. The film is threaded and
the leader wound up bringing sensitive film into the gate.
The lens is removed and the film which is exposed in the
aperture is marked with a pencilled cross or other mark
of identification. The camera is now set up for the scene.

The camera is started. About two seconds after the
period (a) has passed, the cameraman calls out "Look!"
the actor looks up and sees the spectre, when period (c)
comes the cameraman calls "Up!" and the actor rises, at
(d) the cameraman calls "Push !" and the actor's arms are
thrust out. Period (e) passes without comment by the
cameraman and at (f) the cameraman calls "Down!" and
the actor sinks into his chair and continues with appropri-
ate action. This completes the first exposure.

In professional work such effects are made by the
"Foot and frame" method, where the actual frame
passing through the camera may be selected, but if
we are using a spring-driven camera in good condition
we may assume that the film will pass through the
mechanism at a practically uniform rate of speed and
thus enable us to do this by time. But to allow for
any possible spring drag it is advisable to allow a half
second or so leeway especially between (a) and (b)
and between (e) and (f).

The camera is taken into a darkroom illuminated only
by a "safe" light. The film is removed and rewound upon
the first spool. The camera is rethreaded and the film
started through the camera. The film is advanced one
frame at a time until the marked frame appears in the
film aperture. Thus we know that the film will start at
the identical point at which the first exposure was started.
We are now ready to film the spectre.

A black drop is necessary for this work. Velvet is far
better than any other fabric, but a good, dense black flan-
nel or felt may be substituted. This should be hung
against one wall of a room and all outside light excluded.
At one side of this improvised dark stage is placed the

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 205

primary light, and directly opposite, making an almost
perfect cross light is placed the secondary light. In this
case the effective intensity of the secondary should not be
more than one-fourth that of the primary. Both lights are
shielded so that the black drop is not illuminated in the
least. A black floor covering should also be used, and as
far as possible shielded from the light. The strongest
light should be thrown upon the head of the figure, falling
off rapidly toward the feet. The actor who is to play the
role of the spectre is clothed in a white or light colored
costume, and has a white grease make-up.

The camera is now set up and the position of the actor
determined. It may be remarked here that either a sliding
base focussing telescope or a reflecting focussing device
should be used in all double exposure work to ensure exact
registration of positions. The exposure is determined in
the usual manner and about half the proper exposure
given.

The actor is placed in position. The hand is held over
the lens and the camera started. When time (a) arrives the
hand is removed from before the lens and the spectre starts
action, at (b) the cameraman calls "Point!" The spectre
slowly raises its arms at point (c) the cameraman calls
"Beckon !" and the spectre motions the actor toward him
at point (d) the cameraman calls "Laugh!" and the spec-
tre laughs grimly and at point (e) the hand is placed be-
fore the lens and the camera stopped. This completes the
photography and if the work has been carefully done the
film will show the effect as first described.

caution : This effect depends upon the fact that dark
objects affect the emulsion very slightly. If the room
has dark walls, the greater portion of the wall will not
affect the emulsion at all, but the few details which re-
flect highlights make us believe that we see the entire
wall. In fact the emulsion is as virgin as when placed
in the camera. It follows that if we expose this same
film upon an object which is white and therefore ac-
tinic, this emulsion will receive the image. This is just
what occurs. The few highlighted details show through
the spectre giving the illusion of complete transpar-

206 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

ency. Therefore it is essential that the portion of the
first scene in which the spectre appears shall have a
very dark tone while the second exposure be against
black, i. e., no detail whatever of the second scene shall
be registered except for the spectral figure itself. The
graduated lighting makes the spectre's feet inconspicu-
ous and gives an appearance of a ghostly glide to the
actor's motions. This effect is, as others, subject to in-
finite variation giving the possibility of securing both
mysterious and beautiful effects.

A pair of complementary masks for making double exposures. The white line in the

second mask is shown only to indicate the outline of the opening in the mask box.

showing the effective area of the mask.

Double Exposure with Masks.

effect. — Again a man is discovered seated in his arm
chair idly smoking. The smoke drifts up and forms a faint
cloud in the corner of the frame. This cloud shifts and
changes its form, a vision appears and we have two pic-
tures shown upon the screen simultaneously, one the actor
as he is, the other his dream. He shakes his head, raises
his hand and draws it across his forehead and the vision
disappears.

method. — This is made in much the same way as the
preceding. That is, the film is marked, the first exposure
made by count, the film rewound, the second exposure
made by count and the film is finished. In this case the
periods are: (a) beginning of film (b) the appearance of
the vision (c) actor sees vision and smiles (d) brushes
hand across forehead and (e) disappearance of vision. As
for mechanical reasons periods (d) and (e) cannot occur
simultaneously, the effect in reality is that the hand is
drawn across forehead and dropped to the lap while the
actor's eyes remain closed. He shakes his head and raises
his eyes, but the vision is gone. The principal point to be

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 207

observed in this work is that when the cameraman calls
"Hold !" the actor shall remain absolutely motionless until
told he can move.

The camera is set up and started. When (b) is reached
the cameraman calls "Hold !" and stops the camera. He
inserts the protective mask and starts the camera calling
out "Action !" The vision is now supposed to be present
and the actor carries on in accordance. He looks up, smiles
and looks at that part of space before him which lies in the
general direction the vision will occupy later. At (d) the
cameraman calls "End !" and the actor raises his hand to
his head, then at point (e) the cameraman calls "Drop!",
"Hold !" in quick succession, and stops the camera. The
mask is removed and action resumed to the end of the
scene. We now have a film upon which is impressed the
image of the actor, but for a part of the film's length, a
portion of the frame has been protected from the light and
there is no image upon it. We now have to register the
image in this space.

The film is rewound in the darkroom or changing bag
as before and the marked frame brought into the aper-
ture. We arrange the set for the action of the vision. The
camera is set up for this action and the complementary
mask inserted. The action is arranged so that it will ap-
pear properly in the space exposed by this mask. The
camera is run with the hand over the lens to period (b)
when the hand is removed and the action carried on. This
runs along to period (e) when the camera is stopped and
the film is completed.

In this work one must clearly understand the function
and use of the complementary masks. These masks are
pieces of black cardboard so cut that when laid, one upon
the other, that they will be opaque, yet in no place will
there be a double thickness of the card with the exception
of the narrow line of junction of the two openings. Thus
if mask (a) used for the first exposure has the bottom half
and the left half of the upper half cut away, leaving only
the upper right quarter of the cardboard in place, the com-
plementary mask will have the lower half and the upper
left quarter of cardboard with only the upper right quar-

208 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

ter open. All space which is open in one is closed in the
other. This allows us to expose any desired portions of
the film separately.

The Goerz mask box for amateur cine cameras is made
especially for use with these masks. There is a frame
boundary already provided so that all that is necessary is
to insert a piece of cardboard, mark the outline of the
entire opening, remove the card and cut away any desired
portion. From this first mask a second is made as its
complement and the masks are ready for use. It is well
to make a registration mark on both masks and upon the
mask box so that the two masks may be inserted into the
mask box in correct lateral register. The sliding base ar-
rangement enables one to check up on the correct place-
ment of the two scenes of action in order that they may
appear properly matched upon the screen.

While double exposure seems to be quite complicated, it
is not really so and with a very little practice the amateur
should become quite expert in its use.
Dissolve.

The dissolve is a very beautiful effect, but it is perhaps
the most difficult effect for the amateur to use as it re-
quires a great deal of practice. Due to the automatic
drive of the amateur cameras, its use is tremendously sim-
plified, but even so, and with the aid of a tripod for cam-
era support, it is difficult to make a smooth dissolve in a
predetermined time.

Dissolves are accomplished in professional practice
by means of special double shutters which close by
means of a gear train, but in amateur work, the dis-
solve is accomplished by turning the iris diaphragm of
the lens toward the closed position. In making any
scene which includes a dissolve it is best to make use
of a filter in bright light as the larger the diaphragm
opening to start with the easier it will be to make a
smooth dissolve.

Before trying this on an actual shot, it is a good idea
to practice with the camera, opening and closing the dia-
phragm several times until it can be closed with a uniform

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 209

motion and in a predetermined time, usually about four
seconds.

effect. — The dissolve is responsible for the screen effect
which we know as the "fade." The scene gradually dies
away into blackness. These straight fades are compara-
tively easy, but when we get into the "lap dissolve" and
the various lap effects, we find unusual accuracy is de-
manded. Let us consider our last double exposure effect.
Here the vision instead of appearing suddenly would
slowly take form and as slowly die away instead of dis-
appearing abruptly.

method. — In this case the difference would affect only
the periods (b) and (e). At the first call of "Hold!" the
actor "freezes" and the cameraman instead of stopping the
camera, turns the diaphragm down through a period of
three or four seconds. The mask is inserted and the cam-
era started and the diaphragm turned to the open side.
The action is then continued and at the end of the vision
the same thing occurs.

In filming the vision the same procedure is followed.
The lens is covered until the portion of film between the
two dissolves is reached. Then instead of merely removing
the hand, the iris is opened on the vision and at the end
of the scene, the iris is closed upon the scene and the
camera stopped. This substitutes the dissolving vision for
that which jumps in and out of the scene abruptly.

CAUTION : This effect can be obtained only when the
film is to be finished by the negative-positive method
as the negative must be cut between the two dissolves,
the dissolve in registered over the dissolve out and the
positive printed from both negatives simultaneously.
This does not give as smooth an effect as is obtained
when we can run the camera in reverse, but the effect
will be good enough to add appreciably to the general
quality of amateur production. If this is done with a
film to be reversed, the same splice would have to be
made which means that at each lap approximately
eighteen inches of double thickness film would have to
run through the projector and this would present great
problems in registration and joining.

210 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

effect. — (b) A statue is shown which gradually loses
its lifeless character and turns to a living model.

method. — A straight shot is made, dissolving out on the
stone statue. A living model is put into the place occupied
by the statue and the dissolve opened upon her. In this
case, where the entire frame is involved in the lap, a dark-
room rewind is permissible placing the lap directly upon
the single negative. The dissolve is made in five seconds (2
feet of film). The position of the statue on the ground glass
of the reflex focusser is noted and the camera taken to
the darkroom and two feet of film rewound. The camera
is then set up and focussed upon the model who is placed
in the same relative position that the statue occupied. The
exposure is now made opening the iris during five seconds
and the scene is carried on. In this try to have the statue
and model only sharply focussed. Let the background be
highly diffused, as this obliterates any mistake in regis-
tration during the second set-up of the camera. The lap
dissolve may be adapted to any case in which one scene or
a portion of a scene is to be gradually merged into an-
other of different character.
Dissolve, Round Closing.

This is an effect which is improperly called a dissolve,
as there is no suggestion of dissolution in the projected
image. It is more properly called the "Circle" or "Iris"
and is used in conjunction with the words "in" and "out,"
as "circle in," "circle out," "iris in" and "iris out."

effect. — The picture is presented upon the screen in
the usual manner. At the end of the scene instead of stop-
ping abruptly, the edges of the screen become black leav-
ing the scene presented in a circular opening. This cir-
cular opening, which has diffused edges, grows smaller,
until the screen becomes entirely dark. The corresponding
effect is shown when the scene opens with a black screen,
in which a small spot of light appears. This spot gradu-
ally grows until the scene covers the entire screen.

This effect is also used to introduce characters, or to
emphasise a certain character. Such character is placed
(when using amateur equipment) in such a position

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 211

that his face will occupy the center of the screen. Then,
it is obvious that this face will be the first thing seen on
a circle-in or the last object seen on a circle-out.

method. — This work requires the use of a special device
known as the "Iris Vignetter." These are made by C. P.
Goerz, Wollensak and Bell & Howell. Some of the earlier
models did not quite close, a characteristic of all ordinary
iris diaphragms, but the latest models have an extra leaf
providing complete extinction. With the models which do
not entirely close, the hand must be placed over the end of
the iris when the circle-out is completed, and conversely
the hand must be held over the iris until just prior to
circling in. The iris itself is a small funnel shaped device
attached to the outside of the camera in front of the lens.
It has an iris of conventional form attached to its outer
end, and this in turn is controlled by a small rod pro-
jecting from the control collar.

To circle in, the scene is first arranged properly either
by use of the reflex focussing device or the sliding base ar-
rangement. In this case the sliding base device will be the
better as then the iris can be operated and the effect
watched directly in the focussing telescope. This permits
us to place any actor or any object in proper relation with
the opening in the iris.

There is always the possibility of producing new effects
with a pocketful of small optical accessories. Any optician
will supply you with a prism. This should be of the right
angled or "total reflection" variety, and about the size
of those used in the larger prism binoculars or slightly
larger. A second equilateral prism should be purchased,
with a base of perhaps % °f an inch. A mirror of good
quality, on thin glass and perhaps two inches square,
should also be secured. These may be easily adapted to the
front of the camera in such a manner that the various
devices are supported before the lens in the required man-
ner to produce the various distortion effects.

For example if the mirror is held at an angle of 45 de-
grees in front of the lens with its edge about one inch in
front of the center of the lens, your film will show a pic-

212 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

ture in two parts in which motion is entirely dissociated
yet with no apparent dividing line. Other effects will sug-
gest themselves.

The prisms are used to secure curved line, "tumble
down" effects, and for either horizontal or vertical com-
pression effects.

One of the major uses of the prism is to secure "round-
the-corner" films. By placing a total reflection prism be-
fore the lens with one of the shorter faces resting against
the lens barrel and the other facing to one side, subjects
may be shot at right angles to the line of the camera op-
tical axis. This enables one to secure various shots in
which the subjects are absolutely unconscious of the fact
that they are being photographed.

This last device will be of the greatest value to the
traveller who so often finds himself among people who,
individually and collectively object to being photographed.

The field of camera trickery is boundless, and the ama-
teur is cautioned before entering it, that it will become an
obsession. Amateurs who are bitten by the dread trick
bug become its lifelong slaves.

CHAPTER NINE

EDITING THE HOME FILM

We all talk glibly of film editors and cutters, yet how
many of us really understand the first principles of film
editing?

Film editing is analogous to literary edition. Super-
fluous parts of the film are removed, errors are corrected or
removed, the component parts of the whole are rearranged
to the best advantage, and in short, the film is assembled
in its most coherent form by the editor. To this end, many
parts of the original will be entirely removed, and quite
often certain lengths of an entirely different film will be
introduced for the purpose of making the original more
interesting or more intelligible.

The first, and most general purpose of edition is the re-
moval of the poor frames at the beginning and end of
scenes. These will almost invariably show slight traces of
fog, the action of the scene itself will probably not be of
great interest, and we nearly always expose a foot or so
after the action of interest has stopped. These uninterest-
ing portions are removed. This is not merely a matter of
choice, as such portions, if allowed to remain in the film,
will cause an interruption of the continuity of interest on
the part of the spectator and your friends will find your
films rather a bore instead of being of great interest.

It is a fact well known to those who have had profes-
sional experience, that an experienced film editor could
take the usual amateur film library and by editing each
film make the entire series so interesting that they Avould
be used constantly and projected repeatedly until worn
out. This is quite different from the present usual case
where a film is projected two or three times and then dis-
carded.

213

214 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Then, when making films of the family, or during a va-
cation, or when shooting an amateur photo-play there will
be times when a scene is started and then proves a dud
before completion. Such slips must by all means be re-
moved from the film. So much, then for the removal of
portions of the film.

Chronological Order. — Now we take up the much dis-
cussed question of the preservation of the proper chrono-
logical order in making the film. There has been
considerable acrimonious discussion regarding this point,
but mature deliberation will show that there is only one
possible method of working which can be successfully ap-
plied to any film. The various scenes which go to make up
an amateur (or professional) photo-drama should be taken
in that order which presents the least technical difficul-
ties ! So, if it is more convenient to make scene number
nineteen immediately after making scene number forty-
two, that is the only sensible thing to do. The attempt to
make the scenes in proper chronological order will practi-
cally always result in a film of inferior quality.

It has been argued that the amateur actor can do better
work by carrying on his action progressively, that in us-
ing the non-chronological order he will forget the preced-
ing scene and be unable to take up the proper action.
Nonsense ! Common sense will indicate that all scenes of
a sequence will be taken in order if the location does not
change, so that each individual thread of action may be
carried on practically continuously, but even if this is not
true, the actors can easily check their scripts and get into
the swing of the action. Discrepancies in acting are not
nearly as noticeable as discrepancies in costumes or prop-
erties and these will inevitably creep in where the chrono-
logical order is followed.

The successful amateur photo-play will nine times out of
ten be made in other than natural order. It is therefore
the duty of the editor, not only to cut the scenes apart,
but to reassemble them in order and in a manner which
will give a smooth, flowing action to the entire sequence.
Note that it is not enough to merely re-assemble the films
in proper chronological order ; they must also be assembled

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 215

(or edited) in a way which will compensate for errors in
action !

The amateur cameraman has not the facility in chang-
ing magazines which the professional has. Therefore, as
there are often interesting shots cropping up which have
no relation to the story being filmed, the cameraman will
go right ahead and grab these shots when the opportunity
offers. No matter what they may be, if they have promise
of future interest, shoot ! Later, when the film is being
edited this shot will be cut out, labelled and stored in the
film editing library. Note that this is quite different from
the film library. The latter is a collection of complete
films kept on hand for purposes of projection. The editing
library is a collection of individual shots to be used at some
future, indefinite date for the purpose of adding interest
to a film which is being edited.

When the amateur photo-play is being edited there will
always be times when the need of some scene is felt, which
scene has not been included and quite often it is of such
nature that it cannot be secured without great trouble and
expense. Suppose, for example that the cinematographer
lives in Tampa. One sequence is built about a honeymoon
spent at Niagara. He could hardly be expected to go
north merely to make this shot. However, suppose that
on his vacation last summer he was at Niagara and secured
some shots of the Falls. These would be placed in his edit-
ing library and in this photo-play he could cut in one or
more of these shots to excellent advantage.

Therefore the editor will not only watch for opportu-
nities for inserting library shots, but when travelling he
will always keep a weather eye open for such material.

Illusion in Edition. — This brings up another point of
edition, and one of the more difficult ones. That is the de-
ception of the audience by the approximation of inter-re-
lated shots to produce an illusion of a scene which cannot
be projected for one reason or another. To illustrate this
point we may as well continue to use the Niagara example.

We build a railing similar to that found at or near the
point from where the shot of the Falls was taken. This is
arranged so that the background is hazy and formless. We

216 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

place our actors before this railing, and one of them points
out into the distance. A sharp cut is made to the Falls
shot, and back again to the actors. One points in a differ-
ent direction and again we cut to a short shot of the Falls
from a different angle. If these shots are properly ar-
ranged, in spite of the fact that one series was made in
Florida and the other in New York and Canada, the spec-
tator will firmly believe that the whole series was shot at
Niagara.

This cutting trick is often used in professional work to
lend reality to miniature shots of catastrophes, and it is
one of the most valuable tricks which the amateur editor
can use. He will be able to produce effects which will be
inexplicable to his friends. Even when they know that
there is some kind of trick involved they will not be able
to analyze it, so great is our mental power of association
of ideas.

When the library is built up to a sufficient size it will
often be possible by the clever use of titling to assemble
a complete photo-play or review reel from these unrelated
shots. This has actually been done in professional work.

Sequence and Tempo. — A knowledge of sequence and
tempo is essential to cameraman, editor and director, but
as these three are usually the same individual in amateur
practice, it will not be out of place to discuss these points
here, as they have a very great influence upon edition.

Sequence. — A photo-play is made up of individual
scenes which are assembled in a series of sequences which
in turn make up the complete drama. Eeels are merely
mechanical divisions and are disregarded both in filming
and in editing. A scene is one bit of continuous action. A
sequence is a series of consecutive scenes. A change of
time, place or theme means a change of sequence. Suppose
that we are filming "Bobbie's First Day at School. " The
first sequence will show Bobby being prepared for school.
This sequence will continue until he leaves home and
starts for school. As he walks down the street we will
fade out or iris out. The next scene will show him enter-
ing the school grounds. We circle or fade in on this shot.
All of the scenes which show his activities at school form

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 217

another sequence if uninterrupted. But suppose we show
Mother at home thinking of Bobby. We iris out on Bobby
seated at his desk, iris in on Mother, complete that scene,
iris out on Mother and iris in on Bobby just where we left
him. In this case the scene showing Mother forms a com-
plete sequence in itself. The sequence is always properly
introduced by a fade in or iris in and closed by the oppo-
site fade out or iris out.

This convention aids us in following the theme of the
story, but it also adds considerably in another and inci-
dental way. In film assembly a dark and light scene
should not be placed in abrupt juxtaposition. As sequences
often end in interiors and the next open on a bright ex-
terior, the fade or circle prevents the optical shock felt
when a dark scene cuts abruptly to give place to a light
one. When this change occurs in the midst of a sequence,
do something to break it. You may cut in an insert, or a
short title. Anything which can be used to make this light
change less abrupt should be done, but do not, in taking
the film, deliberately insert circles or fades to give this
gradual change.

Tempo. — Tempo refers to the rate of action, and not to
the rate of travel of the film through the camera. It also
refers to the style of editing. Let us consider two scenes,
the first a scene of great excitement, such as a fire. The
second scene is one which is peaceful and calm, a sunset
scene in a rural setting with a country lass walking down
a lane and out of the picture.

In scene one every actor is hurrying, rushing to the fire.
A strolling actor taking his time would introduce a comedy
effect here. All is speed, action! In cutting the scenes
of such a sequence, the scenes are cut abruptly at the end
of the principal action. Let us suppose that we have an
actor in a leading role running toward the fire. We cut
one scene as he leaves the frame, perhaps even while a
part of his foot is still in the scene. We cut the next shot
where he is part way within the frame, we lose no time,
but actually gain a fraction of a second in this cut. This
keeps the spectators "on their toes" and induces a nervous
tension in keeping with the nature of the scene.

218 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

On the contrary, with our girl walking down the lane,
we let her leave the screen entirely and then Ave run for a
second or so on the empty scene and slowly fade or iris
out, taking from five to eight seconds to complete the fade.
This slow termination leads the audience,, mentally, into
a condition analogous to the action, one of calm and peace-
ful contentment.

These points concerning tempo may sound like splitting
technical hairs, but in actual practice their observation
will inevitably result in your films becoming known as be-
ing interesting while Jones, across the street, cannot get
his friends to look at his films which are carelessly edited
or not edited at all. The superiority of professional films
lies not so much in superior acting nor in superior photog-
raphy, as it does in the great attention given to the edi-
tion.

Regardless of subject and all other points, the successful
amateur film mast be well edited!

Close-ups. — The importance of the close-up in photo-
plays can hardly be overestimated, but their effectiveness
is often lost by improper placing. Whenever possible it
is better to shoot a scene straight through and then make
all close-ups for that scene after shooting the scene itself.
These close-ups are then inserted in their proper position
by the editor. Note that this placing is clone only after
the editor has seen the entire scene actually projected upon
the screen. This makes it possible to place the close-ups to
far better advantage than when they are shot in the places
they are to occupy. When the close-up is shot in place it
can be changed only with difficulty for if it is removed the
two-scene portions of the film will not match. This causes
a "jump" which is instantly apparent upon the screen. So
for the best results, always shoot every scene in its entirety
and then make the close-ups for insertion during edition.

If the actor is speaking during the cut, have the close-
up showing the lips moving. Notes of such details are
made during the filming of the scene, and the close-up
later made to match.

Inserts. — In inserts, such as letters, telegrams and so
forth, have the insert match the original as to color, shape

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 219

and position. Also be sure to insert this just at the proper
place. It would be poor edition to show a letter, then
the insert of the message and then back to the scene show-
ing the actor opening the envelope. It is just as bad to
have him lay it down after reading and to then present
the insert. In such a case the scene should show the
actor raising the letter and starting to read — then cut in
the insert.

In flashbacks, there is somewhat more leeway regarding
the place of cutting, but it is advisable to lead up to a
point just preceding the crisis of the scene, then flash-
back and then back to the crisis.

Titles. — Titles require careful cutting. The position
of captions or descriptive titles is largely determined by
the scene, but the spoken title must be inserted with the
utmost care. The spoken title should be inserted when
the actual speech is about two-thirds completed. This
lets us know in advance that the actor is speaking, and
the remaining one-third gives us a slight preparation for
the succeeding action. A few trials in cutting in spoken
titles will soon give you the necessary knowledge for doing
this successfully.

Cutting Table. — So much for the "what" of edition.
We will now consider the "how." The first step in editing
is to provide the necessary place and equipment. The cut-
ting table should be in a light, well ventilated room, for
the work is more or less tedious and the greatest personal
comfort should be secured. The table itself should be
about two by three feet and about 28 inches high, or
slightly lower than the usual household table. In the top
of the table a square opening is cut about two inches
square, or it may be rectangular, about two inches wide
and from eight to twelve inches long. This opening is
fitted with a piece of heavy glass such as is used for auto-
mobile windshields. The glass is set so that its top is just
flush with the table top. The crevice between the glass
and table top is filled with some plastic material which
will give a smooth even surface when dry. Beneath this
glass a socket is fixed which will take an ordinary 25 watt
electric bulb. This glass makes it easy to examine film

1. Editing the film using the cutting rack, with rewind and splicing machine.

The projector is used to project titles making them easy to identify.

2. Loading the Stinemann 16 m/ni rack preparatory to developing.

220

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 221

without having to hold it up toward the light which is often
awkward. With the glass in the table top one can examine
every frame in a spool of film without fatigue. It is well
to insert a piece of paper or ground glass between the bulb
and the glass to diffuse the light.

This table is to be equipped with all accessories for
edition. The importance of such equipment cannot be
overestimated. In fact, if I had only a certain limited sum
to expend, I should rather purchase a less expensive
camera and buy a good set of editing equipment than I
would to buy an expensive camera and do with makeshifts
in the cutting room. The finest film ever made can be
ruined in editing, and this holds true of amateur films
just as much as of professional ones ! Do not skimp the
cutting room ! The best' equipment is not expensive and
it will mean a 100% improvement in film quality.

(Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
Kodak rewind. This is an essential part of the furnishing of any amateur cutting room.

Rewinds. — The first thing to consider are the rewinds.
Do not try to use a pair of wooden uprights with nails
driven through them. After turning the reels by hand a
few times, and after picking up a reel which has dropped
from the nails a few hundred times, you will be strongly
tempted to throw the whole thing out of the window and
go fishing. Get a set of geared rewinds! You can get
along nicely with one geared head and one dummy, but for
de luxe cutting, get two geared heads. This is strictly a
luxury, and has no great advantage except that the film
may be run in either direction at high speed. It is a com-
mon practice in professional cutting rooms, but for the
careful amateur, there are few rewinds which will give
more thorough satisfaction than the type manufactured by

Bo,

pq <u <u
u £jy

> *1

W.5 5

Ph
CO

Q
O

W
H

222

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 223

the Eastman Kodak Company for use with their standard
sixteen millimeter, four hundred foot reels. This is the re-
wind used by the writer in editing his sixteen millimeter
film and it gives the same consistent satisfaction that is
characteristic of Eastman products. The general appear-
ance of this rewind set is shown in the accompanying
illustrations.

This rewind consists of a base of hardwood, weighted by
the use of metal plates under each end of this base. These
plates bear rubber feet which prevent the instrument from
marring the finest furniture. At the left end of the base
is a dummy. This is a support with a freely turning shaft
which in turn is made to take the standard 16 millimeter
reel or the standard camera spool of either 50 or 100 foot
capacity. At the right end of the base is the geared head.
By means of gears enclosed in this support, the reel is
turned much more rapidly than the crank, making it pos-
sible to use this rewind set for rewinding films at a high
rate of speed when using a projector not equipped with
an automatic rewind.

{Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
The Kodak Splicing Outfit. This small pack contains all of the essentials for splicing

16 m/m film.

In the center of the base is a very simple, yet very effec
tive, film splicer. This consists of a metal base in which
are set eight pins. These pins engage a similar number of
perforations in sixteen millimeter film. In addition a
metal shield is provided which is laid upon the film and
registered by these same pins. One end of this shield is
marked "Cut" and one is marked "Scrape." The film is
placed, emulsion side up so that the pins enter the per-
forations. See that one entire frame extends to the right
of the right hand pins. Now place the metal shield over
this film with the end marked "Cut" to the right. Using

224 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

the edge of the shield as a guide, cut off the torn edge of
the film. Lift the shield and turn it end for end with the
end marked "Scrape" at the right. A narrow edge of film
will be exposed. Moisten this edge and scrape the emulsion
from the film. Be sure that all emulsion is removed. The
film and shield are now removed from the metal block.

The film which we have cut and scraped we will call
the left hand film.

Now take the other torn end. Place it, dull side down
so that one entire frame extends to the left of the left
hand pins. Place the metal shield over this as in the
first example, with the end marked "cut" to the left, and
cut off the torn piece. Then remove both shield and film
from the block. This we call the right hand film.

Replace the right hand film, emulsion side down over
the four right hand pins only. This will bring the cut end
in the center of the block. Place the left hand film, also
dull side down over the four left hand pins. The scraped
end of this film will now project over the end of the right
hand film. Hold the films in place with the first and third
fingers of the left hand. With the second finger of this
hand lift the scraped end and apply a liberal coating of
film cement to the under side of the scraped end, press the
two ends together and hold for about ten seconds. Then re-
move the film from the block, press the joint between the
fingers and wipe off any surplus cement.

Splicing Film. — This splicer is thoroughly satisfactory
for film repair and occasional splicing, but for the exten-
sive splicing necessary in film editing, a more elaborate
machine will be found to be convenient. There are
numerous splicers on the market, some very good, some
good and some not so good. All of them will make a splice
which will ride through the projector, but that is not
enough. We want splices which will run through the pro-
jector without any indication of their presence. Only this
kind of splice will insure long life to both film and to pro-
jector. A poorly aligned splice may go through, but it im-
poses a strain upon the film and this in turn places the
mechanism under a strain. Such continuous and repeated
strains mean wear or breakage of the projector sooner or

225

226 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

later. The best type of splicer is that which is modeled
upon the professional machines. These are but little more
expensive than the cheap machines, and mean perfect
patches. The writer has used a Griswold splicer of this
type for some time and has found it to be fully satisfactory
in every way. This splicer, which may be regarded as
typical of the professional type of splicer is used as fol-
lows :

The splicer consists of two pair of leaves, right and left
hand, placed on opposite sides of a shear blade. The leaves
may be moved independently or in pairs. For reference we
will call these leaves upper left, lower left, upper right
and lower right. The directions are those of the operator
who faces the machine.

The left pair is raised, also the upper right leaf. Upon
the upper surface of the lower right leaf are three pins.
Two rounded at the right end and one pointed at the left.
The film is placed, emulsion side up between the two right
hand pins, while the single pin at the left is inserted
through a film perforation. The upper right leaf is now
lowered. This clamps the film firmly between the upper
and lower leaves of the right pair. A double spring holds
the film firmly upon the shear blade at the left of the right
pair. The lower left leaf is now lowered. This shears off
the end of the film clamped between the right pair of
leaves, leaving it squared for a neat joint. Leaving the
lower left leaf down, the right pair is raised, carrying the
right hand piece of film with it. The other piece of film is
now placed upon the lower left leaf just as was done be-
fore, the upper leaf brought down, clamping the film in
place. The right hand pair is now brought down, which
is turn shears the end of the left piece of film. The right
pair is raised again disclosing the sheared end of the film
lying upon the shear blade. If the operation has been
properly performed, there will be a pair of perforations
lying directly upon the shear blade. About 1/1 6th inch
of film is exposed.

Now the accessories supplied with the machine come
into play. These consist of a felt moistener, a brush and a
scraper with extra blades. The felt moistener is soaked in

<U o

o g

wpq

227

228 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

water until it will absorb no more. It is then squeezed
fairly dry and is ready for use. The exposed end of film
is noAV thoroughly moistened by rubbing the moistener
back and forth across its surface. The scraper is now laid
upon its support rod, just beneath the shear blade. To
bring the scraper blade into contact with the film, the
scraper must be tilted to the best scraping angle. Moving
the scraper back and forth, tipping it toward you as you
draw the blade toward you, and tipping it away as you
push, the emulsion is rapidly and completely removed
from the celluloid. Any fragments of emulsion or celluloid
are removed by means of the brush set in the scraper.
The scraped and brushed film is given a coating of cement,
not enough to flow off, yet a sufficient amount to leave the
film thoroughly and apparently wet. The right pair is
now brought down as far as it will go. This clamps the
celluloid surface of one piece of film to the cleaned patch-
ing tab of the other, completing a good joint. This joint
is made so near the frame line and is made so accurately
that there is no screen indication of its presence other than
the change of scene.

A skilled operator can make good splices on such a
machine, in fifteen seconds, but any average amateur
will have no difficulty in making a joint in thirty
seconds. That means from the time the two cut or broken
ends are picked up until the joint is placed under pressure.
Of course, if the pressure is maintained for ten or fifteen
seconds there will be less chance of the joint pulling apart.
However if a joint holds for a half minute, it will probably
hold indefinitely. To understand this we should consider
the joint itself.

Film "cement" is not an adhesive of any kind. It has
no adhesive effect upon anything except celluloid. It is
in fact a mixture of celluloid solvents, usually acetone and
amyl acetate, although ethyl acetate is also used. In this
mixture a few shreds of old film are dissolved to "ripen"
the cement. It is evident that if a solvent is placed upon
celluloid that the process of solution will start at once.
The first step in such a process is a general softening.
This occurs in the film patching. This softening is a com-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 229

paratively slow process, so that when two pieces of cel-
luloid are placed under pressure with celluloid solvent be-
tween the pieces, the surfaces of the celluloid strips are
softened and the pressure forces them together, in a way
actually welding the two pieces together. Then, as the
film solvents are extremely volatile, this phase is followed
almost instantly by a re-hardening or "setting" of the
celluloid. Thus we see, that film patching must be care-
fully done. All emulsion must be removed from the sur-
face of the celluloid which is to receive the cement. This
means that an efficient method of cleansing must be em-
ployed. The old razor blade, especially in the hands of the
novice, tore the film or wore it too thin before all the
emulsion was removed. Machine work means the removal
of all emulsion with a minimum amount of celluloid being
removed. Then, it is also evident that considerable pressure
must be applied instantly and simultaneously to all parts
of the joint. This too is provided by machine work. For
this reason film will break in a fresh place before a machine
joint will pull loose, while the hand patches of the novice
often pull apart before the film is projected. This is due
to the fact that uniform and instant pressure is not ap-
plied as soon as the cement is laid on the film. As a result
the film is held together not in a firm, unyielding joint,
but merely by a few spots of surface adhesion.

The hand patch can be made when desired. In this case
a diagonal cut may be made if preferred, as it will distrib-
ute the strain between an entire and a patched perforation.
The film is cut from a point midway between two perfora-
tions to a similar point between the next two perforations
on the opposite side of the film. The adjoining film end
is cut to match this. Thus when the two films are laid,
one upon the other, with the perforations matching there
will be an overlap equivalent to one frame. This may be
trimmed down to half this width if desired, but not less.
The emulsion is scraped from the lower film by the use of
an old razor blade. The emulsion must be entirely re-
moved, yet care must be taken not to weaken the physical
body of the film too much. When this is done, cement is
applied to the lower film end, and the other piece which

230 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

was cut to match is laid upon this, the perforations quickly
registered and the two films pressed firmly into contact
with the fingers.

So much for splicing. A few trials will enable you to
make machine splices of professional quality, and you
may, in time, learn to make hand splices which are
thoroughly dependable, but few amateurs can do this.

One of the most convenient accessories of the cutting
room is the cutting rack designed by the writer of this
book. This rack folds compactly into a space about 2 x 4 x
20 inches, yet it provides ample support for the scenes
from a complete roll of film. A crossbar 18 inches long
is supported about 20 inches above the table. This cross-
bar carries a number of spring clips which hold the film
ends. This rack is clamped to the table's edge. A later
addition is a square holder which slips over the rack feet,
replacing the "C" clamps. From this holder hangs .a
velvet lined bag which keeps the ends of the film strips
from dropping to the floor where they may be damaged.

Cutting. — The film is cut into separate scenes. Each
of these scenes will bear its proper number registered by
means of the slate or scene register. The scenes are hung
upon the clips of the cross bar of the cutting rack. The
ends of the film then hang in the bag and are protected
from injury. As each 100 foot spool will contain approxi-
mately 250 seconds of screen action we may roughly esti-
mate the number of scenes at from twelve to fifteen.
Fifteen clips will give us one clip for each scene. If
we are editing a complete reel of 400 feet we will have
four scenes for each clip. Thus 1-2-3-4 will go on clip one,
5-6-7-8 on clip two and so forth. The bar should have the
clips numbered for ready reference.

As the film is cut the individual scenes are hung upon
the proper clips. When the whole film is cut, the titles are
also cut and hung upon the opposite end of the bar. The
film is now ready for edition.

Joining. — The main title is taken from its clip and the
beginning or top end of the strip is threaded into the reel
upon which it is wound. To the end of this strip the end

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 231

of the cast and credit titles are secured in proper order by
means of small paper clips of the round variety which will
wind upon the reel easily. To the end of the last title of
the introductory group, the beginning of scene one is at-
tached, and so on throughout the film. The titles are in-
serted in their proper places by referring to a copy of the
scenario which should lie before the editor at all times.
Omit all spoken titles at this time, as they are to be in-
serted later. When the film is complete, rewind it in a
reverse direction and note carefully two things. See that
the dull side of all scenes is upward or that it is down-
ward. Do not have part of them one way and part the
other. For the best cutting, the dull side of all scenes
should be up. Note also the direction of the top of the
frames. If the first winding is made upon the left hand
reel, as it should be, the heads of all actors and tops of all
letters in all scenes should be at the left of each frame.
Be very careful to see that this is true. Now rewind again
toward the left. Verify the order of the scenes, then cut
off the identification, fogged frames and other spoiled
frames. When this is done start rewinding again to the
right, cementing the films together, at each junction
of scenes.

This step is known as the "joining" or "patching," 'and
is done as has been described elsewhere in this chapter.
The principal thing to do is to see that each patch is firm
and tight. When this is done the film should be once more
a continuous ribbon without any scene registers, solid
black or white frames or other similar flaws, but with all
of the action included.

This film is projected after this stage. First the subtitles
are examined to see if they are in their proper places, then
the action is watched to see what portions could be re-
moved. If an actor leaves the scene empty, it is not well
to run five or six seconds of such a scene, unless it is de-
liberately done for some particular effect.

At the same time entrances and exits are watched to
see if they have become "crossed" in production. (See
chapter on direction.) If an actor leaves at the left side

232 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

of the screen and another scene shows him in the continua-
tion of that travel, this second scene should show him en-
tering at the right and again leaving at the left.

This is enough for the first cutting. With the obviously
surplus film removed and the more general points of
technique checked up, the film is ready for the second pro-
jection. This projection is for the determination of the
places for the insertion of the spoken titles. The scenario
will show the approximate location for such titles. When
this part of the film appears upon the screen, the actor's
lips are watched carefully. A reversible projector will be
of great advantage in this work. After closely examining
the speech, the general nature of the action is noticed at
a time when the speech is about two-thirds or three-quar-
ters completed. This is the cutting point for the title. At
first you will probably have to project for each one or two
titles, but with practice you will become so familiar with
this work that you can cut in a full reel of spoken titles
with only one or two projections.

The film is removed from the projector and placed upon
the rewind. It is wound slowly until the portion of the
film is disclosed where the title is to appear. At this time
a reading glass will be needed. Examine the film frame by
frame until you come to the predetermined place for the
cut. Cut the film here and join in the spoken title.

Spoken Titles. — There should be perhaps six inches
more of this spoken title than is actually necessary for
screen presentation. After the spoken titles are cut in the
film is again projected. Watch the spoken titles carefully
and see if each one of them comes at that point where one
would naturally expect them. Remember that the specta-
tor imagines the actor going on with his speech while the
title is upon the screen, so do not have ten seconds of ac-
tion, a two-word title and then five or six more seconds of
speech action. Try to time the lip motion to the length of
the title, and by all means have the actors use the identical
words which appear in the title upon the screen ! In this
projection note the imperfections of the spoken titles only,
and in the next cutting remedy these defects. Then pro-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 233

ject the film for the last time. By this time you will have
become thoroughly familiar with the film and you will
notice the minutinae which make or mar the whole. Thus
a final or "polishing" cutting will smooth out the whole
film and you will have a motion picture record which you
may exhibit to your friends with pride.

In the case of the usual film, this copy is the only one
made. Therefore the editing is done upon the positive
which will be projected. In case the two-film process is
used, as soon as the positive is cut satisfactorily, the nega-
tive is cut to correspond. Then every print made from this
negative will be an exact duplicate of the edited positive,
eliminating the necessity for editing every positive made
from the negative.

When edition is complete, the film is polished and stored.
A piece of hard felt about 2x6 inches and % inch thick is
covered with soft cotton cloth and glued or tacked to the
rewind base. The film is now threaded upon the rewinds
so that it passes this pad dull side down. A pad is made
by folding a piece of chamois skin several times. This is
saturated with alcohol, but not to a point where it will
drip. As the film passes over the pad, the back or polished
side of the film is briskly rubbed with the alcohol pad.
This removes water marks, finger marks and other similar
marks which would interfere with good projection. This
is known as "polishing" the film. When it is polished it
is wound upon a reel with the emulsion side out (if a print,
emulsion in if it is a reversed print ) . It is wound firmly
but not tightly enough to "cinch" the film causing "cinch
marks." When it is wound upon the reel the end of the film
is secured with a film clip, to prevent the film from un-
winding.

The film is now stored in a humidor until it is wanted
for projection. The humidor is a can or box, holding one
or more reels of film, and provided with an absorbent pad.
This pad is kept moistened. This in turn prevents the films
from drying out and becoming brittle. It is essential that
films be kept in a humidor of some kind, if they are to be
preserved for any length of time. The humidor pad should

234 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

be examined at definite intervals to see that it is moist.
Before finally storing the film, be sure to label it in
some way, either by writing the title directly upon the reel
or by attaching a gummed label. Do not depend upon a
label attached to the humidor can only, as reels are apt to
become mixed during a full evening's projection.

CHAPTER TEN

HOME PROJECTION

All of the discussion which has preceded this chapter
has had but one aim; the production of the best possible
film. This film is necessary for projection and projection
in turn gives us the final result, the image upon the screen.
All of our labor is directed toward producing a perfect
image in motion upon the screen. If every step up to pro-
jection is done perfectly and the projection itself is
neglected, our labors will be rendered useless. It is, there-
fore, quite necessary that we give the fullest possible
amount of attention to this question of projection.

In order to do this we must understand the principle of
projection. Motion picture projection consists of project-
ing, by means of an optical system, an image of the film
upon a screen. The screen which is used is light in color,
which is to say, one which will reflect the greatest possible
percentage of the light which falls upon it. A total reflec-
tion screen, if such a thing were possible, would be ideal,
but as this is not possible by any known means, we have
to use the nearest approach to the ideal which we can
secure.

If we allow a pure white light to fall upon a surface
which has a high reflection factor, we "see" that surface
as an expanse of white surface. If we hold our hand be-
tween the light source and the surface we see a projected
image or shadow of our hand. The fact that the hand
obstructed certain light rays in their travel from the light
source to the surface, made this image or shadow visible.
So, projection, whether still or motion, is the projection
of a beam of light, certain areas of which are obstructed
to a greater or lesser extent by the silver deposit in the film,
causing a corresponding diminution of the intensitv of the

235

236

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

light reflected from the corresponding areas of the screen.

You cannot project an area of light of greater intensity
than the screen itself directly illuminated by the light
source!

If you use a medium gray screen your highest light will
be medium gray.

If we return to our shadow analogy we find that as the
hand is held nearer the light source and farther from the
surface, that the outlines of the shadow become more and
more diffused until finally practically all form is lost. This
is due to the fact that the light comes from a comparatively
large source. By holding black carboard in front of the
light, and by piercing a small hole in this cardboard you
will find that the sharpness of the shadow's outline is re-
stored, but that the contrast between the shadow and the
illuminated surface is lessened, due to the small amount
of light passing through the hole.

{Courtesy Bell & Howell)
The Minusa projection screen in its case.

In projection we are confronted with the problem of
utilizing the greatest possible percentage of the original
light, at the same time securing the sharpest possible
definition of the image upon the screen.

(Courtesy Bell & Howell)
The Minusa screen opened for use.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 237

In addition to this we must have a mechanism quite
similar to that employed in the camera, whereby the film
is supplied to the aperture and removed therefrom and re-
stored to a compact roll. At the aperture the film must
be held motionless while the actual projection is taking
place and moved forward one frame while the shutter ob-
structs the light. As in the camera this is known as the
intermittent movement, and is often quite similar to the
camera movement in construction and operation, while
some projectors make use of the intermittent sprocket
movement known as the "star cam" or "Geneva move-
ment/' the movement used in most professional projectors.

The light is provided by an incandescent bulb made
especially for projection. This has a concentrated filament
suspended in one plane. This gives us a high candle-
power of light upon the film compared with the heat gen-
erated. In front of this bulb there is a condensing lens.
This lens bends the rays of light so that all of the light
falling upon a circle of some 1% inches in diameter is
concentrated upon the film aperture which is only about
5/16 by 3/8 inch. This light beam serves to illuminate the
film in the aperture. From this point on the efficiency of
the projection depends upon the projecting lens.

Projection is the reverse of taking. In taking the lens
passes the light emanating from the subject, to the film.
In projection the lens passes the light from the film to the
screen. The projection lens takes the place of the black
cardboard shield with the small hole in it which we con-
sidered in the shadow analogy. It makes possible the use
of a large light opening with sharp definition. It follows
then, that just as in the case of the camera lens, the larger
the relative aperture or "f" value of the protection
lens, the brighter will be the picture with any given
illumination.

In most projectors the illumination is increased by a
mirror of parabolic form set just behind the lamp. This
directs into the condensing lens those rays which are cast
backward from the lamp. Thus in order, we have as a pro-
jection system : mirror, lamp, condensing lens, film, pro-
jecting lens, shutter and screen. The shutter may, and

238 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

often does, operate between the film and the projection
lens or between the condensing lens and the film.

As these individual parts of the system must all be in
good condition to give good projection, the failure of any
one will injure the projection quality. For that reason we
shall take them up one at a time.

Mirror: A true parabolic mirror has a definite focal
point, just as a lens has. If we permit parallel rays to enter
a corrected lens, those rays will be converged to meet at
a common point. If we place an illuminant at the focal
point of a parabolic mirror, that light will be reflected as
a parallel beam of light. However, many projector mirrors
are only spherical and suffer from all of the faults of
spherical aberration, that is much of the reflected light is
lost, no matter where the lamp is set with regard to the
mirror. If a parabolic mirror is used, the illumination
depends to a great extent upon the proper inter-relation of
mirror, lamp and condensor. Try moving the mirror, if it
is adjustable, while projecting a beam of light upon the
screen. Naturally no film is used in these adjustments.
Fix the mirror in the position which gives the most light.
This adjustment is never made until the condensor is
properly adjusted.

A mirror which is coated, tarnished, or one from which
the silver is peeling will not give good results. Keep the
mirror protected from scratches and friction at the back,
and keep the surface polished with a soft cloth. A harsh
cloth will scratch the surface of the mirror and in time
injure its reflecting power due to the innumerable fine
scratches dispersing the rays passing through the glass.

Lamp: The lamp will seldom give trouble until it is
worn out. If an air leak is present the inside of the bulb
will turn gray.

The lamp must be placed in proper position with regard
to the projector, but as this position depends upon the con-
densor position it will be discussed under condensors.

Condensor: This is a lens or combination of lenses
used to condense the light upon the film. It may be a
special Fresnal type of lens, two plano-convex lenses or
two plano-convex and one double convex lens placed in

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 239

proper relation. The two plano-convex lenses form the
most common condensor system.

The condensor system has a focal point and it is im-
portant that the condensor be properly focussed. This is
easily done by projecting a beam of light upon the screen
without any film being in the projector.

The screen will either be intensely illuminated or it will
have purplish blue shadows upon its surface. The posi-
tion of these shadows indicate the error in relationship
between condensor and lamp. If the shadow is annular
or circular it indicates that the lamp is too near the con-
densor or too far from it. Move the lamp backward and
forward until the shadoAvs disappear.

If the shadows are semi-annular, the lamp is displaced,
laterally or vertically. If the shadows are at the side of
the screen the lamp is displaced laterally, if they are at top
or bottom the lamp is displaced vertically and if they are
near the corners of the screen, the lamp is displaced
obliquely. The remedy is to move the lamp in the direc-
tion indicated.

The condensor is almost certain to collect a thin film of
oil from the mechanism and this in turn collects dust and
dirt. Soon the surfaces of the lenses become so clouded
that they lose much of their efficiency, perhaps forty or
fifty percent. This in turn cuts down the screen illumina-
tion enormously. It is quite essential therefore that the
condensor lenses be kept clean, and that they be polished
periodically.

Film : The subject of the care of the film is too broad
to be covered here and will be discussed later in the chap-
ter. In actual projection the film may be displaced in the
aperture showing the frame line and parts of two pictures.
This is remedied by moving the "framing lever" with which
every projector is equipped. Moreover, the film often
breaks during projection. When this occurs, the broken
end is tucked under the corresponding broken end which
is wound upon the take-up reel, and projection continued.
The repair will be taken care of later.

Projection Lens : The projection lens must be moved
back and forth until the image of the film is shown plainly

240 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

upon the screen. This is known as "focussing." At times
the picture will be dim and dull despite a perfect light
system. In this case examine the projecting lens to see
that it too is clean. The projection lens will not gather
dirt as rapidly as does the condensor, but it will also ac-
cumulate a gray film of dust which must be removed if
the original brilliancy of projection is to be maintained.
Shutter: The shutter obstructs the light while the
film is in motion. As long as it does this it is satisfactory,
but at times the shutter will become loosened upon the
shaft and slip. When this occurs we have the film moving
to a greater or lesser degree while the shutter is open.
This gives rise to the "rain" effect upon the screen where
the image is blurred vertically, making the scene look as
though it were obscured by a heavy rainfall. This is cor-
rected by restoring the shutter to its proper position. This
is determined by operating the projector very slowly,
turning the mechanism by hand. Note the position of the
shutter when the film starts to move and the shutter posi-
tion when the film travel stops. This will immediately
show if the shutter is out of position.

The DeVry automatic screen. A sharp pull upon the cover of the case causes the
screen to spring up into place, while a reverse motion closes it.

Screen : Many amateurs purchase the best camera and
projector obtainable and then project their pictures upon a
sheet, or white wall or any other old thing which they
think will serve as a screen. This is a grave mistake. The

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 241

screen is one of the most important adjuncts used in mo-
tion picture projection. It has three attributes of im-
portance in projection, i.e., size, color and surface texture.

The screen size is determined by the effective illumina-
tion of the projector. As the size of the screen or rather
the size of the projected image is increased, the brilliancy
of the picture diminishes. This is easily explained. We
have a definite quantity of light falling upon the film and
passing through the projector lens. If this light is spread
over one square foot of screen surface we have a definite
illumination, if it is spread over two square feet (not two
feet square) of surface we have one-half that illumination
and so forth. Kemember that a screen two feet long re-
quires four times the light that a screen one foot long does.

The effective brilliancy of the projected picture varies
inversely as the square of the distance betiveen projector
and screen.

The color of the screen is quite important, but this is
not a definite factor either. The color of the screen is de-
termined by the effect desired, the average tone of the films
projected and the nature of the light source. However,
as these factors are fairly constant, the usual amateur
screen is silver or aluminum bronze.

This gives rise to a theoretical question. The bronze
has practically no local color when illuminated by the
projector light. It merely reflects the light which falls
upon it. Due to the matte surface formed by the fine
grains of the bronze, the light is diffused, that is it is re-
flected in many directions, the included angle of re-
flected light depending upon the granularity of the
screen surface. It would seem that this would be an
ideal screen and it is very good. It has, however some
inherent faults. The tone of the color is cold and harsh.
It is in fact metallic. The reflected light is of the same
character as that of any light reflected from a matte
surfaced metal. In addition to this, any waves or wrin-
kles appear as dark streaks across the screen. This is
due to the character of the reflection.

The gold screen is used at times. This has the same
characteristics as the silver screen with the exception that

242 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

the yellow tone of the gold bronze gives a warm tone to the
picture, but at the same time the contrast of the picture
is degraded. For this reason the gold screen is only ad-
visable for use with very brilliant, snappy positives. With
these it gives a projected image which is very attractive.

Another surface which has found great favor is the
white screen. This screen is coated with a smooth coating,
creamy white in color, with no suggestion of a cold or
bluish white. This creamy color, like the gold screen gives
a more pleasing tone to the highlights of the picture, but
it does not degrade contrast. It is said that the white
screen does not give as great a percentage of reflection as
is secured with the silver screen, and this is probably true,
for a white surface does not reflect as great an amount of
light as does a silver one. However, the difference is not
great. On the other hand, the white screen gives the pleas-
ing tone mentioned and in case of slight waves or wrinkles
it does not give the heavy shadows seen with the silver
screen. The choice then depends upon individual taste.
With a slight loss of illumination (but no degradation of
contrast) the more uniform and pleasing projection is
secured with the white screen, but for the greatest possible
illumination the silver screen is used.

However, for good results the white screen must be one
prepared for this express purpose. The white fabric "cur-
tain" such as a sheet or similar cloth has a very low reflec-
tive power, nor is the plastered wall very good. The white
coated screens have surfaces expressly prepared to give the
highest possible reflection factor for the color used.

Kecently another screen has been introduced. This is
the bead screen. This is a screen whose surface is coated
with tiny glass beads. This gives a projection quality
which is liked by many amateurs. The quality of reflec-
tion is similar to that given by the silver, but as in this
case the beads are white glass, we do not have the metallic
lustre of the highlights, and get a result which approxi-
mates the white screen quality. The bead screen is really
a half-way screen between the white and silver, but with
peculiar qualities of its own.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 243

These screens have all been developed to such a point
that any one of them, of any type, will give the utmost
satisfaction, for after all, anything must have merit if it
continues to exist.

A second point to be considered concerning screens is
the support and protection of the screen. In many in-
stances the support and the protection have been combined
in a carrying case. The case is opened, the screen raised
up and folding uprights support the screen in this posi-
tion. This type of screen is made by most manufacturers.
Perhaps the DeVry screen is the most highly developed
of this type of screen. The case is laid upon a table or
other support and the lid lifted by grasping it through the
two holes in the lid. As soon as the lid is lifted a spring
action raises the screen into place and holds it there. The
screen mounting is such that an even tension is main-
tained, preventing a sagging or wrinkled screen. These
screens are made in various sizes in both silver and
bead surfaces.

The ACH screen support is one of the most highly fin-
ished supports made. A rigid, well-made tripod stand is
supplied which supports the ACH white surface screen in
any desired position. Due to the fact that no table or wall
hanging is required the screen is instantly placed in any
desired part of the room without disturbing any furniture.
This is a point of great importance, as many housewifes
object to having the furniture moved about to make ready
for a motion picture exhibition.

In this connection the ACH projector stand may also be
mentioned. This stand is similar to the screen support,
having the same type of base, but the top of the column
supports a projector clamp of such perfect design that it
will hold the base of any available sixteen millimeter pro-
jector and hold it so rigidly that the projector cannot be
knocked off the stand. This stand also has a support for
a ten-reel humidor box. This box provides storage for the
film, but when attached to the projector stand it also forms
a convenient table for the operator, so with the ACH equip-
ment the operator has all necessary facilities for giving a

244 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

perfect exhibition, yet there are no makeshifts, no furniture
wrestling. One small case contains the whole outfit which
is set up in a few moments, and as quickly packed when
the evening's entertainment is over.

Before purchasing a screen it is necessary to determine
the focal length of the lens to be used with the projector.
This is a subject which proves confusing to most people.
The projection lens must be placed a definite distance in
front of the film. This distance is determined by the focal
length of the lens used. A short focus lens is placed nearer
the film than would be one of long focus. It follows then
that the shorter focal length lens, being placed closer to
the film will emit a wider angle of light than would a lens
farther from the film.

The shorter the focal length of the lens the larger will
be the size of the projected image, all other things being
the same.

It also follows that, inasmuch as the light is projected
from the lens in the form of a cone, the farther the screen
is from the projector, the larger will be the image. The
question is, "How can the proper focal length be de-
termined."

In all sixteen millimeter projection we have one fixed
factor, the size of the individual frame. The screen size,
throw (or distance between projector and screen) and
focal length of the lens used are all variable. The screen
size is determined by the preference of the owner, and by
the intensity of the light used. The throw is largely de-
termined by the size of the room in which the projection
takes place and the focal length of the lens is determined
in turn by these two factors. For example suppose that
we have a distance of ten feet between projector and screen
and we want to secure a picture about three by four feet,
or slightly less for projection upon a screen of that size.
By referring to the table in the Appendix we see that a
lens of one inch focus will give us a picture 2.85 feet by
3.85 feet giving us something near a one inch margin all
around the image when projected upon the three by four
foot screen.

As the 30 x 40 inch screen has become almost the

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 245

standard size for amateur projection, the focal length of
the lens will ordinarily be determined by the throw alone.
(For table of projection sizes see Appendix.)

With the proper lens selected the projector is ready for
use. It should be unpacked, set up, adjusted and threaded
in exact accord with the directions supplied with the in-
strument by the manufacturer.

After the projector is running there is no apparent limit
to the troubles which may occur, but fortunately these
troubles very rarely do occur. The modern amateur pro-
jector is so well designed and so well built that it is as
nearly trouble-proof as a mechanism can be made, but it is
well to understand the possible faults so that if they do
occur they can be easily and quickly remedied. If some-
thing should happen while you were projecting a film for
friends — and such troubles never occur except when guests
are present — it would embarrass you greatly if you could
not remedy it, but if you could pass it over with a light
remark and have things running again almost immedi-
ately, the situation would be saved.

Therefore, we shall consider a few of these troubles
which may occur but which seldom do.

Screen Goes White:

There is but one cause for this occurrence, there is no
longer any film in the gate. This may be due to the end
of the film running through the gate or it may indicate a
broken film. If the film is broken, rethread the projector
as usual, tucking the broken end under its complementary
end upon the take-up reel and proceed with projection.

Screen Goes Black :

If motor is running and shutter is turning — Lamp
burned out, replace with new one.

If motor stops at same time; Electrical connection
broken, trace current supply for location of break. This
requires the service of an electrician if you are not familiar
with electrical repair work.

If lamp burns and motor runs : Shutter probably
stopped due to broken part or shutter becoming loose upon
the shaft.

246 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Picture Becomes Stationary :

Motor stops. Current supply to motor is too weak or
motor connection is broken.

Motor runs. Suspect torn perforations. Open gate and
examine film. Move film down until fresh perforation is
engaged. Single frame clutch thrown out.

"Bain" Effect:

In this case the picture looks like it was being viewed
through a heavy rainstorm. The effect is produced by the
film being pulled down before the shutter closes. The fault
lies in a loose or slipped shutter. Loosen shutter on shaft,
then turn until the intermittent just starts to pull film
down. Place shutter so that its front edge covers the
aperture and fasten in place. Now rotate the mechanism
slowly and see if the film stops dead still before the shutter
uncovers the aperture. This will remedy the fault.

Perforations Appear upon Screen :

This is followed by a film stop. It indicates that the film
has jumped from the gate or sprocket and this usually
means a torn film also. Stop machine, remove damaged
film from gate, rethread and proceed with projection.

Film Chatters in Gate :

This is usually accompanied by a dancing of the image
upon the screen, by a loss of focus and general poor
projection.

The cause is an accumulation of gum from the film.
This is a mixture of softened gelatin from the emulsion,
hardened lubricant and dust. It is about of the consistency
of cold shoemaker's wax or harder. This mass becomes
tacky when slightly warmed by the heat of the lamp and
friction. This drags upon the film surface just as rosin
will cause the finger to drag and "chatter" when a rosined
fingertip is rubbed upon glass. The mass is removed by
a horn or hard rubber scraper. Never use metal for this
purpose. Metal will scratch the gate, and these scratches
will act as tiny chisels which in turn scrape more gum
from the film thus aggravating the trouble.

If the mass does not come away easily, moisten it. This
makes removal much easier.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 247

Picture Dull and Dim as Compared with Other Pro-
jections :.

Dirty lenses.

Condensor, lamp and mirror have lost their alignment.
Readjust.

Line voltage low, advance rheostat control of lamp.
Loss of Loop:

This is due primarily to careless threading. It is an-
nounced by a humming ripping sound ending with a snap
as the film breaks. Rethread carefully and proceed with
projection.

This loss of loop is a problem which gives a great deal
of difficulty to the owners of certain types of projectors,
but it need not occur if the threading is carefully done.
When the film is placed around the sprocket, there is
nothing to hold it in place until the guard rollers are
locked in place. In those cases where all guards snap into
place with a single movement, watch carefully to see that
the teeth of the sprocket engage the perforations of the
film upon both sides of the sprocket or upon both sprockets,
if a double sprocket machine is used.
Bulbs Burn Out Too Quickly:

You are using too much current. Adjust the rheostat
to give a slightly less brilliant light. In cases where the
current pressure is unusually high it may be necessary to
insert a resistor of low value in the line. Resistors are
available which will give roughly a 5 volt drop in pressure.
For greater drops these resistors are connected in series.
Alternate Sharp and Soft Definition :

If the gate pressure pad springs are too weak, the heat
of the lamp may buckle the film causing it to push the
pressure pad backward, thus throwing the film out of the
focal plane. Have new springs inserted.

These points cover most of the faults encountered in
projection, that is, the faults due to the mechanism itself.
If a faulty film is placed in the projector, the machine
cannot be blamed for poor projection. Because of this
fact, the film should be carefully examined before it is pro-
jected, and periodically, all films in active use should be
examined or "inspected," as will be explained later.

248 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

The selected film is removed from the humidor, the film
clip removed and the reel placed upon the projector. Have
all reels marked, stating whether the film is an original
reversed film or a printed positive or reversal duplicate.
The reversed films (originals) are threaded through the
projector with the individual images upside down and the
polished side of the film toward the light. The printed
positives and reversal duplicates are threaded upside down
but with the dull side of the film toward the light. The
light referred to is the. projector light. The opposite side
of the film will then be facing the projection lens.

In most cases this means that the side of the film which
faces the lens will be wound upon the outside of the reel.
This point should receive careful attention as otherwise
the pictures will be reversed from right to left.

This reel is placed upon the projector and about eighteen
inches of the "leader" pulled from the reel. This is
threaded according to the manufacturer's directions. When
the last sprocket or the lower side of the master sprocket
is threaded, there should be a sufficient length of the leader
left to be attached to the take-up reel. This is done by
slipping the end of the film into the slot cut in the hub of
the reel. This is at best an awkward job, and often con-
sumes as much time as the rest of the threading together.
This tedious operation is rendered unnecessary by using
the ACH self threading reel. In place of a slot in the reel
hub, there is a small plate of spring steel. This plate bears
two prongs upon each end. The film is dropped between
the film flanges and pressed against the hub with a finger
thrust through one of the openings in the reel flange. The
reel is then turned around. The prongs catch the perfora-
tions and carry the end of the film around the hub. As
the plate is double ended, the film will be caught regard-
less of the direction of revolution of the reel. It may be
remarked that these reels are notched at the factory for
use with the ACH film clips.

When the projector is threaded, glance at the film to see
that both sprocket engagements are properly made and
that the loops are of the right size. If everything is
properly set, start the projector. If all of the preliminary

.5 a

O S 03
h «(J
^ CO

% w.3

w £g

rt S

a a
a

o OT

J-

&£

at *j

a <s

, u 2 i- -^
: v-i " — ' o o

249

250 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

steps have been properly taken, the picture should now
be projected upon the screen properly spaced and properly
focussed.

This is the point where the difference between the care-
fully prepared film and the haphazard film will show.
The first shot may be a skating scene taken near sunset.
This is placed in the projector, the lights dimmed and the
projector started, but before we turn on the switch, we
throw a blue screen in front of the projector lens and pro-
ject a blue tinted film. Following this we have an autumn
scene and a forest fire. We drop the yellow screen in
front of the lens until the fire is first seen, then as the fire
rises we change to the red screen. These little color screens
which cost so little and which are so simple, are invalu-
able to the projectionist Avho takes pride in the screen
quality of his pictures. He secures an effect to all intents
the same as that secured in professional work by the use
of tinted films. It may be added that sixteen millimeter
film is now available in amber color and is soon to be
supplied in all of the standard tints.

Many people, ardent "movie fans" think of natural
colored films when tinted films are mentioned. This shows
that the film tints, properly used are so natural that their
presence is not noticed, but if they were to be removed
from the film the spectator would notice the absence im-
mediately, although quite possible he could not state
definitely the cause of his dissatisfaction with the pro-
jection.

Every scene requires its own particular tint. In pro-
fessional theatrical films, perhaps 95% are printed upon
tinted film. This means that the celluloid upon which the
sensitive emulsion is placed is actually colored. These
colors are usually, yellow, light amber, amber, pink, blue,
green, red and lavender. Of these the ones most often
used are yellow, light amber and lavender. The lavender
is not a purple or violet, but a rather cool, smoke or pearl
gray with just a touch of bluish tone. This is used for
night scenes, interior scenes, scenes in deep shadow and
similar scenes which are intended to show a cool yet
mellow shadow.

M 4>"rt IS

O <n*

-a

s-c a °
C o w m o £
O u m O

a 2 c „,

*""■&*

o v <u tfcv

^-a & £ n) m

+j .e S >> rt
c ^
.2*2^

S <U g 4) J3 ■"

_£'c «♦< «

*■* -w t« bfl +j
rt . o i- C 4i

o u co o. 3
^ a « c o- o o

HlOUOP U3X1

£S:

251

252 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

The yellow stock is almost "standard." It is used when
no other tint is specifically demanded. It gives a golden
tinge to the highlights which resembles the quality of sum-
mer sunshine and makes the picture appear more brilliant
yet with decreased contrasts. The effect is similar to that
noted when looking through yellow spectacles at a land-
scape. When in doubt use yellow tinted stock.

Light amber is used in almost the same way but as it has
a dusty russet tinge it is used for subjects which have a
general tawny tone, such as dry grass plains and so forth.
Deep amber is hard to use, in most cases, but for a late
autumn shot it gives a rich autumnal brown which gives
almost the effect of a natural color film. It is recom-
mended for such scenes, also for "dusty dry" desert scenes
and similar shots.

Blue is used for night, moonlight and snow scenes. The
reason is immediately apparent. The character of these
scenes in nature is such that much of the normal yellow
tint of sunlight is absent or neutralized, and the absence
of yellow results in a blue tint.

Pink is used for sunrise effects almost exclusively.

Green is used for marines and for deep woodland. Green
is difficult to use as few subjects appear correctly when
printed upon green stock. This is one tint which, like red,
is immediately apparent when used in projection.

Eed is used for explosions, fires, and all similar scenes.

There is just one thing to remember in using filters
rather than tinted film. The tinted film has the color situ-
ated practically in the focal plane, and it therefore affects
the definition to a very slight degree. However, the filters
are placed in front of the lens where they will have some
effect upon the lens definition. Therefore it is quite neces-
sary that such filters be of very thin celluloid or of opti-
cally ground flat glass having either no appreciable, or a
uniform index of refraction. If this point is neglected,
there will be a distortion of the image upon the screen.

The most satisfactory way to secure projector tints is
by the use of reliable tint filters such as the Filmo projec-
tor color filter, a manually operated set of filters or an
automatic device such as the American Cine Colorator.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 253

The latter has the filters entirely enclosed in a dust proof
casing, with an outside controlled automatic action. With
such devices no apparent distortion is present due to the
high quality of the glass used.

These devices have four individual filters, any one or
any combination of which may be placed before the lens
instantly. There are fifteen distinct tints which may be
secured by using various combinations. In fact, it is pos-
sible to change a scene from an apparently brilliantly
illuminated sun-bathed landscape to a very good night
effect. By careful manipulation the changing light effects
of dawn or nightfall can be imitated to a surprising
degree.

Do not keep up a running fire of commentary while the
film is being projected. Your film should be so well titled
that it needs no commentary whatever. In fact many ama-
teurs make a practice of providing appropriate phonograph
music for film accompaniment. The phonograph is used in
preference to the radio because the music may be selected
to suit the film which is being projected. This not only
discourages irritating conversation, but if some judgment
is shown in the record selection it adds materially to the
quality of the projection.

Lighting Projection Room. — And now as to the illum-
ination of the room during projection. An absolutely dark
room is neither necessary nor desirable. The flashing of
the white screen before and after a reel is shown is annoy-
ing if not positively painful. Of course expert projector
operators never allow the screen to flash white, but this
skill is not attained without considerable practice.

A bridge lamp is one of the most convenient sources of
illumination for the projector. This should be fitted with
a deep, opaque or almost opaque shade. The bulb should
be deep orange or light red. This will give a considerable
amount of illumination in the room, enough to allow those
present to move about with perfect freedom, but it will not
interfere with the projection to any apparent degree. This
is far better than to have the room plunged into darkness
and then start the projection.

When the switch is turned on the screen should show

254

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

the main title, correctly framed, and in perfect focus. Be-
fore the spectators are assembled, the machine is set in
place, the lens focussed properly and so placed that the
frame is properly centered upon the screen. The frame is
set properly in the aperture, and as sixteen millimeter pro-
jectors are almost automatic in framing this should giye
no difficulty. In threading, pull out enough leader to place
the main title in the gate before starting the machine. Then
if a trailer bearing the word "Finis" and about three feet
long is attached to the end of the film, the projector can be
stopped before the screen flashes white.

(Courtesy Amateur Movie Makers)
The Twogood title inspection device which enables the editor to examine the film while
it is beina: slowly rewound.

One of the principal objections to the home projection is
that the act entails so much disturbance in the home.
Tables are set up in the center of the room, one for the pro-
jector and one for the screen, or the screen is hung from
the picture rail, and a table dragged up for the projector.
In fact, while this seems an insignificant detail, it is one
which causes a drop of at least 50 % in the number of hours
of actual amateur projection.

Projection in its easiest form is secured by the use of
stands of the type known as the ACH stands, which haye
been described.

After the evening's projection is over, before the equip-
ment is stored away, the films should all be rewound, -if
they have not been rewound before removing them from
the projector. Care should be taken to see that they are
properly wound, ready for rethreading for the next pro-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 255

jection. Then all reels should be securely locked against
accidental unwinding by the use of film clips.

Then they are stored away in their humidor cans or
in the humidor case. If these precautions are taken after
every evening of projection both films and projector will
last almost indefinitely.

Every two or three weeks the films should be inspected.
During this inspection torn perforation and scratches are
searched out as has been explained. The film is wiped with
a piece of soft cloth or it is pulled between two small blocks
which have been covered with several layers of soft, lint-
less cloth. This will remove dust and dirt. The pads
should be changed frequently to prevent any metallic or
other gritty particles from scratching the film during this
cleaning.

For this work the cutting rewinds are called into play.
The full reel is placed upon the dummy stand and the free
end of the film attached to the empty reel upon the geared
stand. The film is now slowly rewound, while the edges
are allowed to run through the thumb and finger of the
left hand. In this way any broken perforations will be
felt. At the same time any large scratches or other faults
will be seen by looking doAvnward through the film at the
cutting light. As long as the film is held between the
thumb and finger there is little danger of running too fast
for above a certain speed the film will burn and cut the
fingers.

When a torn or broken perforation is found the proced-
ure differs according to the type of projector being used.
If this projector has a single claw operating upon one edge
only of the film, the frame must be removed and a patch
made in the film, but if a star-cam sprocket is used for the
film drive, the torn perforation is neatly trimmed with a
sharp blade or pair of scissors so that it will pass through
the mechanism without catching in the gate.

For this film inspection the ACH film inspection outfit
will be found to be very satisfactory. This outfit, consist-
ing of rewinds, splicer and magnifier allows each frame to
be closely examined as it passes from reel to reel. This is

256 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

a device which the careful editor will appreciate as well
as the amateur projectionist.

At the same time notice the condition of the celluloid it-
self. If it feels too flexible, allow the reels to lie outside
the humidor for a day or so and remove some of the mois-
ture from the pad in the humidor box. If the film is hard
and brittle, increase the moisture of the humidor pad. If
the proper degree of humidity is maintained in the humi-
dor, the life of the films will be greatly extended.

After having considered some of the general features of
projection let us consider the leading sixteen millimeter
projectors now offered upon the American market. This
list is not intended as a complete catalog, but merely as
a series of 'brief specification lists.

{Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
Kodascope Model A.

EASTMAN KODASCOPE MODEL A

This is a large machine, the largest sixteen millimeter
projector on sale, but it is also among the best. It is made
throughout with a quality which matches that of the orig-
inal Cine-Kodak. It is designed for intense illumination
and it will satisfactorily project a film at a much greater
degree of enlargement than is usual in the sixteen milli-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 257

meter work. For those who want a strictly high class in-
strument, this Kodascope is recommended.
Specifications of the Kodascope:

Size— 18% x 15 x 10% inches

Weight — 20 pounds

Capacity— 400 lineal (1000 equivalent) feet of 16 milli-
meter film

Lens — Two-inch focus, finest quality

Current — 110 volt house current

Lamp— Either 11 volt, 56 watt or 50 volt 200 watt. Control
by means of special rheostat and ammeter which are
integral

Focus — By conveniently placed knob

Framing — By adjusting screw

Rewind — Manual

(Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
The Kodascope Model C may be packed in a small, compact case for transport or storage.

The next Kodascope to be introduced was the model "C"
which is essentially a projector for home use. This is a
small, compact projector well liked by many amateurs due
to its small bulk when packed and its light weight.

Specifications of the Kodascope Model "C" :
Size— 5% x 7 x 8
Weight — 9 pounds
Focus — Spiral lens mount
Framing — Lever actuated
Stop Film — Lever actuated for still pictures
Capacity — 100 lineal or 1000 equivalent feet of 16 milli-
meter film
Lamp — 115 volt, 100 watt special
Current — 110 volt house current
Rewind — Manual

258

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Just recently the Kodascope Model "B" has been intro-
duced. This is a strictly modern amateur motion picture
projector, which has been brought strictly up-to-date. It
incorporates many new features which reflect the demand
of the modern amateur. The time has passed when the
amateur will be satisfied with a miniature take-off of a
professional projector. The amateur refuses to accept this
idea in camera construction and this new projector shows
as many radical changes as did the amateur camera.

The Kodascope Model B. This is the latest and finest of the Kodascopes. It is so

designed that the film need only be started in the first sprocket and the machine will

automatically thread itself, forming the proper loops.

The instrument folds compactly for packing or trans-
port, yet when in operation it presents a very attractive
appearance which will grace any living room. All bulky
parts have been consolidated in a regularly shaped area
at the left side of the machine. By using a reflecting op-
tical system the lamp house and shutter have been placed
at one side instead of at the rear of the instrument, which

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 259

idea is applied to another recently introduced projector,
the DeVry, and which appears to be growing in favor. This
arrangement certainly adds greatly to the general appear-
ance of the instrument in addition to its more technical
advantages.

The controls are well designed. An ammeter enables
the operator to operate the instrument at its most efficient
current drain, regardless of current fluctuations. The
start-stop-rewind-still picture control is remarkably con-
venient. The use of the still picture device automatically
places a safety shutter between the illuminant and the
film, preventing film blisters from the high intensity light.
One of the features which will appeal to the modern
amateur is the self-threading feature. This feature abol-
ishes one of the most vexing features of amateur projec-
tion. It is hardly practical for the average amateur to use
two projectors, so that the screen is necessarily dark be-
tween reels. In hurrying the threading, to cut this time
down, the operator often fails to thread properly with the
result that a film jam or break occurs which in turn does
much to take away the pleasure of projection. In this
machine the end of the film is cut square. It is then started
at the upper sprocket face. The machine then proceeds to
thread itself, completing the operation and starting the
film upon the take-up reel.

These features together with the specifications noted be-
low indicate that this is a projector which will enjoy wide
favor.

Specifications of the Kodascope model "B":
Size— (folded) 10% x 7% x 9*4 inches
Weight — 13% pounds

Focus — Spiral focussing mount with lever knob control
Framing — By framing screw at side above lens
Threading — Manual or automatic at will
Stop-Film — By lever on side of instrument
Capacity — 400 lineal or 1000 equivalent feet of 16 milli-
meter film
Lamp — 50 volt, 200 watt Kodascope special
Current — 110 volt house current
Rewind — Motor driven

260 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Motor — Integral, 110 volt universal, forward, stop or re-
verse by switch

These three Kodascopes offer a choice from which prac-
tically any amateur can select a suitable projector, and all
are of Eastman quality.

THE VICTOR PROJECTOR

One of the first amateur outfits brought out was the Vic-
tor. The projector is virtually the same as it was origi-
nally, except for the improvements which may be expected
in any machine. The original basic design is used — and
has been imitated to a certain extent by other manufactur-
ers, indicating its excellence. This projector is one of the
few which makes use of the side-by-side film reels. It has
been used, in various models, for almost five years now,
and has given entire satisfaction.

Specifications of the Victor Cine Projector:
Size — 6 x 10 x 14 inches in case
Capacity — 400 lineal, 1000 equivalent feet 16 millimeter

film
Optical System — 3 lens condensor, 2 lens projector, with

mirror reflector
Movement — Victor patent unilateral claw drive
Drive — 110 volt, universal motor with speed control on

base of machine
Lamp — 50 C.P., 14 volt, double contact, automobile type

Easily replaceable. Variable resistance built in case.
Switch — One, for lamp, and motor
Rewind — Manual

Shutter — High aperture, flickerless
Take-Up — Enclosed spring belt

THE FILMO PROJECTOR

The Filmo projector is a suitable companion to the
Filmo camera. It has been widely adopted for commercial
use due to its high efficiency and compact size. The speci-
fications tell the story of a very fine amateur projector.
Size — Packed in case 8 x 11 x 11 inches
Weight — Alone, 9 pounds. Complete with case, spare

reels etc. 14% pounds

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 261

Capacity — 400 lineal, 1000 equivalent feet 16 millimeter
film

Optical Equipment — Mirror reflector, plano-convex con-
densors and finely ground projector. The projection lens
is mounted in a micrometer focussing mount and may be
secured in any focal length from one to four inches. All
are interchangeable in the standard mount

Movement — Shuttle, 9 to 1

Shutter — 216 degree opening

The Bell & Howell Filmo Projector

Motor — 110 volt, universal, integral part of machine

Control — One for both lamp and motor

Cooling — Forced air draft cools entire mechanism and

allows single frame film projection without film warp
Lamp — 50 volt, 200 watt Filmo special
Eheostat — Integral, positive cooling
Speed Control — Knob
Reverse — Instant by turning switch
Stop-Film — Film may be stopped at any point
Rewind — Geared

262 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

In addition the following accessories are offered for use
with this projector:

Splicer — Press, knife, water and cement bottles
Rewind — Usual type adapted to small size
Editing Outfit — Rewind and splicer on one base
Lenses — 1 in., 1% in., 2 in., 2y2 in., 3 in., sy2 in., and 4 in.
Case with Screen — Case with special daylight screen

may be secured to order
Color Filters — For showing films in various colors
Special Condenser — Increases light from 50% to 75%

but prohibits stop film
Special Rheostat — For compensating current changes

where steady, uniform current is not available. Also for

32 volt and for 220-240 volt lines.

the de vry projector

The latest introduction in the field of the substandard
projection machines is the DeVry sixteen millimeter pro-
jector. For years DeVry has produced the world's stand-
ard portable suitcase type projector, and the new sixteen
millimeter model promises to rival its big brothers in qual-
ity of workmanship and operation. This projector is
quite different in appearance from others, but there is one
feature which is instantly apparent to the most casual ob-
server. That is its unusual simplicity, which is one of the
most valuable features of this machine. Any mechanic
knows that in any machine, every added part, means added
possibility of trouble.

While the base and supporting column are not at all
heavy in appearance, the controlling rheostat, the single-
picture clutch and the elevating feet are all contained
inside this casting. This gives the projector a very "clean"
and trim outward appearance.

The lamp-house is swung at the left-hand side of the
instrument, the bottom supported by a split yoke and
the top secured with a nickeled thumbscrew. To re-
move the lamp-house for cleaning the lenses or to give
access to the mechanism, the thumbscrew is loosened, and
the lamp-house lifted off the rest of the mechanism.

The shutter is" concealed in the central pillar, revolving

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

263

between the condensor and the prism which bends the
light beam at right angles. This makes a more convenient
and more easily handled projector than the type in which
the illuminant and the projection lens are laid out in a
straight line.

The DeVry 16 m/m projector. This is one of the latest projectors to be introduced.

It is small and compact, yet it has a very powerful light source making projection

possible even in rooms lighted with usual daylight. It is simple to operate, easily

threaded and gives perfect projection.

Specifications of the DeVry 16 millimeter Projector:
Size — Projector alone 6% x 7 x 9% inches. With reels

attached ready for operating, 7 x 12% x 14 inches
Weight — 7 pounds

Focus — Spiral lens mount with knurled focussing ring
Capacity — 400 lineal, 1000 equivalent feet 16 millimeter

film

264 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Qptics — Mirror, condensor, prism and superior quality
projection lens. Lenses of various focal lengths are in-
terchangeable in standard mount, f 2, 50 millimeter pro-
vided with projector
Movement — Improved unilateral claw, positive action
Stop Film — Film may be stopped at any point. Fire shut-
ter drops into place automatically
Speed — Variable
Control — One for lamp and motor. One for single frame.

Both on left side of machine
Motor — Universal, 110 volt

Rewind — Automatic or manual by geared rewind
Hand Crank — Provided for use when desired
Idlers — Lock in place
Lamp — 100 or 200 watt optional
Framing — By lever

The efficiency of this projector is shown by the fact that
easily viewed pictures may be projected in ordinary day-
light using the ordinary opaque screen. The intensity of

The Pathex Projector

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 265

illumination is not exceeded by any sixteen millimeter
projector in use to-day.

This completes the list of the sixteen millimeter projec-
tors. However there is the Pathex projector, the "Little
Giant" which makes use of the 9% millimeter Pathex film.
This projector is the smallest practical motion picture
projector manufactured.

The operation is semi-automatic. There are no sprock-
ets, the double, central claw and the take-up providing
the whole film movement. With this projector all motion-
less scenes, such as views, titles and so forth, are printed
on only one or two frames of film, the projector stopping
automatically for such frames. These projectors are
made for more or less continuous projection, and in the
small model, the film changes may be made in ten seconds
or less time. The larger model which is equipped with 400
foot reels is handled more nearly like the usual sixteen
millimeter projector.

The projector has a positive rewind. That is to say, the
rewind is a highly geared, built-in device, and the film must
be rewound before it can be removed from the projector.

The small projector has a capacity of 60 lineal or 150
equivalent feet of film. This film is kept wound in small
metal magazines which protect the film from any kind of
injury.

Specifications of the Pathex Projector :
Size— 4 x 7 x 13

Capacity — (a) 60 lineal, 150 equivalent feet (b) 400 lin-
eal, 1000 equivalent feet
Optical System — Mirror reflector, piano convex double

condensor and finest high aperture projection lens in

focussing mount
Shutter — Cast integral with balance wheel
Motor — 110 volt, universal with compression rheostat

control
Control — Light and speed by separate rheostats
Lamp — New, special high intensity Mazda
Current — 105-115 volt house current
Reels — Special magazine type
Film — 9% millimeter gauge

266 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Take-Up — Slip belt drive, automatic pick-up

Stop-Film — Automatic or manual. Automatic at any
predetermined point

Rewind — Geared integral

Movement — Double claw engaging two central perfora-
tions at one time

Drive — Electric motor or manual at will

(Courtesy Pathex Inc.)
The Pathex Superreel which enables the owner of any standard Pathex projector to
adapt it for use with 400 foot reels obviating the frequent changing of films.

These two gauges promise to become the standard sizes
for amateur motion pictures. While the sixteen milli-
meter film is firmly established in America, the 9% is
favored in many other countries.

Other gauges may be ignored, at least for the pres-
ent. Europe is bringing out a great number of novel-
ties, some of which continue to be used while others
flare up and die. Our own production is more or less
uniform, due to our standardized methods of manu-
facture, leaving the production of novelties to our over-
seas cousins. Among these is a vest pocket projector
for the 91/2 millimeter film. This projector is about
the size of the Pathex-camera.

There are several projectors now completed and in
operation which may be announced soon. The writer

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 267

has had the pleasure of seeing one entirely automatic
projector, which gave a screen size of about 7x9 feet
with all of the quality of theatrical projection, yet the
film was sixteen millimeter. Another promised nov-
elty is a combined camera and projector, with a 170
degree taking shutter and a regulation three sector
projector shutter. Several new smaller accessories are
also promised, including a "watch" movie camera and
amateur films in natural color. The country is now
teeming with motion picture invention and no doubt
the next five years will see revolutionary advances in
the art.

CHAPTEK ELEVEN

WHICH BEING FOR THE EXPERIMENTER MAY BE PROFITABLY

NEGLECTED BY THOSE AMATEURS WHOSE INTEREST LIES

IN PRODUCING BEAUTIFUL FILMS, RATHER THAN IN

THE MODUS OPERANDI OF THIS PRODUCTION

The modern motion picture enthusiast belongs to one of
two classes. He either makes films to have them on hand
for projection, or he makes them for the love of the work.
The first type of worker will find but little of interest in
this chapter. His is a worthy and commendable interest,
but this chapter we shall devote to the others, those who
love the work itself, and who, very often, have little if
any interest in the completed film.

Motion picture films are made just as the ordinary films
are made. The light passing through a lens impresses the
film, the greater the intensity of the light the greater the
impression made. In any case, white objects will be repre-
sented by a heavy deposit of metallic silver in the gelatin
of the emulsion, and will form the blackest portion of this
film. This is the negative. From this the positive is made
which is the exact antithesis of the negative, white becom-
ing black and black becoming white. This final print, the
positive, is the one used in the projector.

Positive Processes. — This positive is made by one of
two processes. If the positive is printed upon the same
film, and in the same emulsion which forms the negative,
we call the process "reversal," if, on the other hand, the
negative film is dried and preserved and positive prints
made from this master negative, but upon separate and
distinct pieces of film, then we call it the "two film"
"printing," or "negative-positive" process. Both systems
have advantages and both have enthusiastic adherents. As
to the actual superiority of one process over the other,
time alone will determine that. For the present, we take

268

PRINTING 16 M/M FILM

1. Loading- the Stinemann 16 m/m printer

2. Printing the film with the Stinemann printer.

269

270 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

pleasure in presenting the views of the two greatest pro-
ponents of these respective processes. The first process to
be used was the reversal process, and its advantages are
presented through the courtesy of the Eastman Kodak
Company. Recently, a negative-positive process for six-
teen millimeter films has been perfected and its advan-
tages are given here through the courtesy of the DuPont-
Pathe Film Manufacturing Corporation. We make no
editorial comment, allowing each of these articles to speak
for itself.

However, before going ahead with these argumentative
articles, let us briefly glance over the basic photographic
process.

We know that the lens forms an image, and that this
image falls upon the sensitive material or the "film." Just
what is the film, and what is its reaction to light?

The film has as a base a thin ribbon of flexible celluloid.
This celluloid is merely a vehicle and has nothing to do
with the photographic reaction. The true sensitive mate-
rial is of complex nature and very difficult to prepare. It
has two major constituents. First we have the gelatin,
which provides the support, and second the photo-sensi-
tive silver-bromide. Thus we have the celluloid which pre-
serves the physical form of the film, the gelatin which
serves as an adhesive "body" and the silver-bromide which
is the actual sensitive material.

Chemical Effect of Light. — When light falls, even for
a minute fraction of a second, upon silver-bromide, that
salt is partially decomposed, but the exact nature of this
decomposition has not yet been fully determined. There
is no visible change in the salt. There is a change in the
atomic structure, however, which renders the silver-bro-
mine affinity less strong than it was. Bromine belongs to
the halogen group composed of chlorine, iodine, bromine
and fluorine, which chemicals react in many instances in
a manner similar to oxygen. All of them have a great
affinity for the more common reducing (oxygen attract-
ing) substances. However, in silver-bromide we have a
compound of silver and bromine which is so stable that a
reducer will not affect the bromine. If we subject the

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 271

silver-bromide to the action of light, the affinity between
the silver and the bromine is so weakened that if the com-
pound is then submitted to the action of a reducer, the
bromine will leave the silver and go to the reducer. In
this case there is but one possible result. Silver, metallic
silver, remains where wre had silver-bromide.

The photographic image is composed of an infinite num-
ber of minute areas of light of various intensities. This
falls upon the gelatin-silver-bromide mixture which we call
the emulsion. The light penetrates this translucent mix-
ture to a depth corresponding to (a) the intensity of the
light and (b) the time the light is allowed to act. If we
allow the light a sufficient time for even the lowest inten-
sity to affect the emulsion to a slight degree, it is evident
that we have the silver-bromide affected throughout the
exposed emulsion to degrees which correspond to the in-
tensity of the various areas exposed. Thus in the case of
a girl with a black trimmed white dress having been the
subject, the image of the dress will have affected the brom-
ide almost throughout the depth of the emulsion while the
black trimming will have barely affected the superficial
layer of the bromide.

Development. — If we now submit this emulsion to the
action of a reducer, the bromide upon which the image of
the white dress fell will give up practically all of its brom-
ine and leave a full, heavy and opaque deposit of metallic
silver. That portion which received the image of the black
trimming will give up its bromine only in the superficial
layers and we shall have a deposit of the thinnest possible
layer of silver, which will have a visible effect of being a
very delicate gray tone.

To fully understand this, we must think of the emulsion
as having appreciable thickness, of having layer upon
layer of silver-bromide granules suspended in the gelatin.
After the process of reduction we have, not solid sheets of
metal foil, but innumerable granules of metallic silver,
suspended at various depths in the body of the gelatin.
This is exactly what the microscope will reveal to us. Also,
upon this fact depends the success of photographic
processes.

272 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Reversal. — And what takes place after this process of
reduction is accomplished. In the case of reversal, the
film is again exposed to light. It is evident that inasmuch
as the original emulsion was of uniform thickness, there
will remain an amount of unreduced silver-bromide which
is in exact, inverse ratio to the amount of silver reduced.
We expose the film to light and we decompose the remain-
ing silver bromide. We then remove the metallic silver
first reduced and then we reduce the remaining silver
bromide. It is evident that this second reduction must
give us an image tvhich is the exact reverse of the original.
This is roughly, the process of reversal.

Negative-Positive Process. — If, on the other hand we
are making use of the negative-positive process we find that
we have a film in which we have a perfect negative image
surrounded by a potential positive image which is still
light sensitive. If we are to preserve our negative, this
potential positive must be removed, for if the film were to
be exposed to light this positive image would gradually
reduce from contact with the air under the constant stimu-
lus of light. In time the positive would compensate for
the variation in the density of the negative and we should
have a solid black film.

Fixation. — After development, the film is placed in a
solution of sodium hyposulphite (sodium thiosulphate)
commonly known as hypo, which has the property of dis-
solving silver-bromide without having any perceptible
effect upon the metallic silver in the time required for the
bromide dissolution. This removes the creamy appearance
due to the presence of the bromide and leaves only the
silver grains suspended in the practically transparent
gelatin.

Printing. — After this film is dry it is placed in a ma-
chine, quite similar in many basic mechanical ways, to
the camera, and with a ribbon of fresh "positive stock"
film lying in contact with it, the two films are run through
the mechanism. During this, the fresh film is exposed to
light, the negative being interposed between the positive
stock and the light, thus acting as a stencil. The light
will not penetrate the heavy black patches formed upon

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 273

the negative by white objects, while it passes readily
through the thin gray areas left upon the negative by
images of black objects. Where the light passes the most
strongly we again have black and vice versa. Thus, our
"positive" is a direct opposite of the "negative" and repre-
sents the object in its approximately true color values.

The positive stock after exposure to the light, is reduced
or "developed" just as the negative was and then treated
with the hypo or "fixed" just as in the case of the negative.

Thus with the two processes we arrive at practically the
same end result. The only outstanding difference is that
in case of reversal the same celluloid ribbon which was
used in the camera forms our projection positive, while in
the two film process the negative is used for printing only
and an entirely different film is used for projection. The
relative merits of the two processes are now discussed by
authorities upon the manufacture of film and upon these
two manipulations.

PLAYING THE PARTICLES

The very film which runs through the Cine-Kodak is
turned from a negative to a positive by the manipu-
lation of millions of sensitive grains too small for
a microscope to show.

{Published through courtesy of the Eastman Kodak Company)
It's a long way, in years and in progress, from daguerre-
otypes on our great-grandmother's mantelpieces to a casual
hundred feet of home movies snapped at a picnic. During
the time one of Daguerre's subjects sat in a rigid discom-
fort for a single exposure her less patient great-grand-
daughter can get the family motion picture camera from a
table drawer, "press the button" to make an action picture
of the children in the backyard sandpile — on bright days
or dull — and put the camera away for thirty or forty more
feet at the country club later in the week.

Yet, strangely enough, Daguerre and amateur movies
have one important fact in common — both of them produce
a positive image direct from the camera without printing
from a negative.

274

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

But there is a vast difference in the way that result is
obtained. Daguerre exposed in the camera a silver plate
which had been treated with iodine to make it sensitive to
light and then after exposure left it in a dark cupboard
over a bowl of quick-silver. Where the light had acted,
the quicksilver was deposited on the plate and made a
white area, so that the finished daguerreotype reproducecL
the lights and shadows of the subject in the camera.

O O OS o

owoO

$&&&

%j?<m

CO,

&oa

0 °0

Pq0°OQ°°®

oH ® °°

«$ o

V •

0 •

♦ •

• «

Section 1

Section 2

Section 3

Section 4

Section 5

DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE REVERSAL PROCESS
Section 1 shows the grains unexposed to light. Section 2 shows the film after exposure,
with the larger particles affected by the light. Section 3 shows the film after develop-
ment— the negative stage. In Section 4 the black metallic silver has been bleached
out and the film has been exposed to light. In mathematical proportion to the lack
of brilliance of any area of the subject there is silver halide left on the film undis-
turbed by the bleaching. As soon as they have been developed out (Section 5) these
remaining grains will determine the density of this area of film and its consequent
function in causing shading on the amateur movie screen.

(.Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)

THE REIGN OF THE NEGATIVE

But the next photographic process after Daguerre's,
which was known as "Calotype," introduced an essential
change. This process depended on the light sensitiveness
of silver iodide deposited on paper. The silver iodide which
had been exposed in the camera was developed with a solu-
tion containing silver. This silver was deposited in a
black form on the paper, so that, instead of appearing
white, bright areas of the subject appeared black. There-
fore this calotype process produced in the camera, not a

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 275

picture ready for use like a daguerreotype, but a negative
from which a print had to be made by printing through
the paper. The introduction of the negative was a great
advance in photography because daguerreotypes could not
easily be duplicated. The possibility of making any num-
ber of prints was such an advantage that almost all sub-
sequent photographic methods have involved the produc-
tion of a negative.

But clearly, if it were possible to make a positive directly
from the exposure in the camera and in addition to be able
to print from that, it would be better to do so — because
the negative is of no use in itself but is only a means to
an end, whereas a positive which could be printed from
when necessary, would usually not require printing at all,
and material and trouble would be saved. In the case of
amateur motion pictures this is particularly true; for of
very many of these pictures only one copy is required,
since the one can be projected over and over again.

In natural consequence, with amateur movies came the
perfection of the "reversal process'' of finishing movie film.
The almost magical topic of how the reversal process turns
the very film that has gone through the camera into a posi-
tive to be used in the projector is the subject of this article.

THE REVERSAL PROCESS

Photographic experimenters have worked on reversal
processes for many years ; but the process known previous
to the introduction of the amateur movies suffered from
serious disadvantages, the chief of these being that the re-
sult depended entirely upon exactly correct camera ex-
posures. There was no way of compensating for errors of
exposure. As will be shown later, this has now been over-
come entirely, and the reversal process gives just as much
control of photographic quality as is possible through mak-
ing a negative — while no useless negative has to be made.

But perhaps the best way to delve into the operation of
the reversal process is to look at the ingenious machine
which actually develops and "reverses" amateur motion
picture film after it has been taken from the camera. The

276 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

reel to be processed is fastened to a leader which slowly
passes through an opening in the front end of the machine.
Then it is carried in a series of loops through a deep, nar-
row tank of developing solution. The speed at which it
travels is so adjusted that when the film emerges it has
received precisely the correct development and is ready
for a short rinse.

Then, without the "fixing" which would ordinarily be
the next step, it is led into another tank, the "bleaching
bath," where a drastic operation is performed. All the
metallic silver which formed the negative image is re-
moved, leaving transparent film except where the unex-
posed silver halide remains. Sounds like destructive treat-
ment for motion pictures taken with care and eagerly
awaited by their amateur takers ! But don't worry. The
process continues.

Actually the film is ready to begin its photographic life
over again. The black areas of the film which the camera
recorded from the white of the subject are all cleared away
in proportion to their brightness, and the light of the movie
projector can shine through white to the screen. The
problem remaining then is to turn the original light areas
of the film black.

A SECOND EXPOSURE

So as the next step the film is rinsed again and passes
over a tray in the middle section of the machine, under-
neath which are dim yellow lights. That is to give a
glimpse of the film as it passes. The room itself is other-
wise dark. Then the film is given a second exposure under
a white light of variable brightness, depending on the den-
sity of the film after the first exposure. This makes devel-
opable the silver halide which was not exposed originally
and which therefore was not developed in the first devel-
oper so that it escaped the bleaching bath and is still sen-
sitive to light.

Again the endless chain of film creeps into a developing
tank and into a rinse. Then, this time, it is fixed. It
passes into another series of loops through which warm air

(Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
LATITUDE OF EXPOSURE
The great latitude in exposure which the reversal process makes possible is illustrated
by these pictures. The three frames were made, reading from top to bottom, with the
lens set at f 22, f 8, and f 4. If we suppose that the best possible exposure would have
been made at f 11, then the f 22 picture had only a quarter of the normal exposure,
while the f 4 had eight times the normal exposure. These pictures were processed
with controlled second exposure in the usual way and then enlarged to give negatives
so that the prints shown could be made. It will be seen that the wide variation in
exposure given the original negative was largely compensated in the processing.

277

278 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

blows to dry it. Finally it emerges from the machine
ready for spooling, inspection, and return to its owner's
projector.

But this sight of the "reversal process" shows only what
can be seen without a microscope. The genesis of the
process and the refinement by which it gives excellent mo-
tion picture quality rest in the ultra-minute grains of silver
halide suspended in gelatin on the surface of the film.

The behavior of the largest of them under the effect of
light can easily be examined with a microscope. They are
one two-thousandth of an inch in diameter or even larger.
The smaller ones, those measuring as little as one two-hun-
dred-and-fifty-millionth of an inch, have to be studied by
other methods than sight.

THE PARTICLES' PART

An image on a film is really a mosaic of these infinites-
imal particles — particles of silver halide before develop-
ment, particles of metallic silver distributed in varying
density after development. The grains of silver halide are
not equally sensitive to light. Usually the larger ones are
the more sensitive and the smaller ones are proportionately
less sensitive. The stronger the light reflected by any part
of the subject, the greater is the percentage of silver halide
grains that will be affected in the area of film representing
it. Therefore, the bright areas of any subject will affect
all the large crystals of the corresponding part of the film
and many of the smaller ones; the black areas will affect
none; and an intermediary shade will turn perhaps only
the very largest grains.

What happens to the film during its passage through the
processing machine is shown in terms of particles by the
accompanying five diagrams. They were drawn from
photo-micrographs of Cine-Kodak film.

Altogether apart from economy, this reversal process has
several marked advantages. Most notably, it compensates
for improper exposure to a striking degree and it prac-
tically eliminates graininess.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 279

A SAFETY CUSHION FOR WRONG EXPOSURES

The second exposure of the film, controlled in accord-
ance with the transparency of the film after it has been
bleached, is responsible for the latitude which makes
evenly lighted pictures on the screen even though the ex-
posures have been uneven. (See the three photographs of
a house. ) If the original exposure was too great and over-
much of the silver halide was exposed and developed and
bleached away, then the film is abnormally transparent
and the second exposure is increased and brings out more
of the remaining silver halide grains so that the final image
will be of normal density. Conversely, if under-exposure
followed by bleaching removed too little of the original
silver halide, the second exposure is decreased so that too
many of the remaining grains will not be developed and
left to make an over-dense positive image. After the sec-
ond development, the fixing operation removes the silver
halide which still has not been exposed.

GRAININESS REDUCED

Graininess may be defined as the patchy appearance of
the image on the screen, caused by the grouping together
of the tiny particles of metallic silver. It is the larger of
the ultra-minute grains and clumps of grains which cause
visible graininess on the screen. This can often be seen
when pictures are projected in a motion picture theater,
especially from a seat in the front of the house. Because
of its inherent characteristics, the reversal process greatly
diminishes graininess. The larger grains or clumps of
grains, which cause this graininess, are exposed in the
camera most readily, because they are the more sensitive
to light, and are developed and bleached out in the reversal
process as shown in the diagrams. The final image is,
therefore, made up of the smaller, less sensitive grains,
which do not cause graininess.

DUPLICATES FROM POSITIVES

Professional motion picture companies still use nega-
tives, because they make a number of prints of each pic-

280 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

ture. Yet even there the new reversal process is not at a
disadvantage, for duplicate positives can be made equally
well from reversed film. The original is run through a
printer in contact with fresh, unexposed film. The result
is a negative, just as though the duplicate were being
made from the original subject ; and, equally readily, the
reversal process produces a positive. Thus amateurs can
have two copies of a picture with the same amount of film
that would be required for a negative and a print.

A hundred years since Daguerre !

The reversal process takes photography back to him in
economy of material but a hundred years beyond him in
effectiveness and inventive magic.

DuPONT POSITIVE-NEGATIVE FILM

By E. M. Tobias, Special Representative
DuPont-Pathe Film Manufacturing Corporation

The sixteen millimeter amateur film now widely used by
a majority of amateur cinematographers, was introduced
on the market in the year 1924. The fact that the negative
image made upon the film by exposure in the camera, was
reversed by chemical treatment in the finishing process, to
a positive image, cut down the cost of the film to a certain
degree. By this process the same celluloid ribbon which
was run through the camera formed the film for projec-
tion. This process was vastly different from that used
with the professional (35 millimeter) film, which is a
positive-negative process, as is the new DuPont-Pathe six-
teen millimeter film. By positive-negative we mean that
two ribbons of film are used for each picture. The ribbon
which is run through the camera is developed as a nega-
tive, similar to the negatives secured from ordinary cam-
eras. This film is then placed in contact with a second rib-
bon and run through a machine which exposes it to light
and thus makes the positive film which is used for pro-
jection. This printing process is just like the printing
process in ordinary still photography in which the positive
is printed upon a piece of paper from a film negative, ex-
cept that the print is made upon a second film.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 281

The field of professional cinematography is about thirty
years old, and in this work the positive-negative process
has been used since the beginning. The idea of reversal
of the image from a negative to a positive is not a new one,
as the Autochrome process of natural color photography
is many years old and employs the reversal process. That
is, the negative image impressed upon the plate during
exposure is reversed to a positive, the final picture being
viewed as a transparency.

It is reasonable that if the reversal process is less ex-
pensive (as it is) than the positive-negative process, and
that if other advantages were to be gained by its use that
it would have been adopted by the professional motion
picture producers. The fact that they have not done so,
even for making single prints, is reasonable evidence that
the process has grave disadvantages. Let us examine the
various points of difference in the two processes in an
effort to discover such disadvantages, if any.

As the greatest interest of the amateur lies in the pic-
ture as it is finally presented upon the screen, let us first
consider the quality of the print and the resultant screen
quality. The positive made from a negative by contact
printing is remarkable for its wealth of tonal quality. It
has a full scale of values from the deepest shadow to the
highest light. In such a print the blacks are really black
and not a muddy gray, yet at the same time there are
visible details in deeper shadows and in higher lights than
can be secured by any other process. In other words in-
stead of shadows of uniform gray and immense areas of
blank white, you have black shadows with detail showing
in every conceivable tone of deep gray. You have delicate
deposits of detail in the highest lights. In short quality is
secured.

Probably few amateurs have given thought to this ques-
tion of values, particularly as concerns the black areas of
the film. The fact that a film has a long scale of tones,
gives it a snap, life and brilliancy that is a much more
faithful reproduction of the scene photographed than is a
grayer print. Just for a test, go to your favorite theatre,
watch the film closely as to brilliancy and tonal value.

282 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Then go home and project your sixteen millimeter film.
What is the difference? It is one of quality, the quality
which makes the printed positive supreme. In this test
pay particular attention to the blacks.

The quality of any film is directly concerned with ex-
posure. If the exposure is too short or too long the tonal
scale is degraded and the brilliancy of the film is lost. It
would seem that this necessitates the determination of the
exact exposure. This is not true due to a particular qual-
ity of the sensitive coating of the film known as "lati-
tude." The latitude of a film means its ability to register
the correct tonal scale of the scene photographed when ex-
posed for different lengths of time. The latitude of an
emulsion is to a certain degree, dependent upon the thick-
ness of the emulsion upon the celluloid. The negative film
and positive film used in the positive-negative process both
have a heavier, "richer" emulsion than is used in reversible
film. This means that the cinematographer does not have
to be as careful in calculating his exposures as he would
otherwise have to be, and that his finished film will have
a richer silver deposit and hence a greater tonal range. In
addition to these features, an even greater latitude of ex-
posure is secured through the printing control, where the
intensity of the light used in printing may be regulated
to any degree. These points make it easy for the amateur
to secure good film without having to make an expert de-
termination of the light used. The printing control makes
it possible to correct over and under exposures to a re-
markable degree.

Then there is the question of a master negative. It may
be assumed that any film made by the amateur is a film
which is desired for future use. In fact the value of any
film increases with age. Contrarily the physical quality of
the film passes with age. If we use reversible film we must
have duplicates made when the film is new and fresh. If
we do not do this, the duplicate when made will show
every break, crack and scratch which is upon the original
film, and such defects will occur in every film used for
projection. If the duplicate is made at the time of the
development of the original, it is aging and becoming hard

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 283

just as the original is. In the positive-negative process we
have a master film upon more flexible and longer lived film,
which is never subjected to the drying heat of the projec-
tor, which is not scratched and torn by projection, but
which is stored away and never used for any purpose but
making positives. The ordinary films you make to-day
cannot be projected twenty years from now, but your
great-grandchildren can make prints from your master
negatives. In addition to this, the duplicate from the re-
versed print is more expensive than a print, it has even
less quality and detail than the original, and is rarely
satisfactory.

We are all familiar with the clatter-clatter of film splices
running through our projectors. In the positive-negative
process, the cutting and editing is all done on the negative
so that we can print upon one continuous ribbon of posi-
tive film. This means that our entire film may be run
through the projector without having a single splice in it,
nor will a splice ever be necessary unless through accident
the film is broken.

DuPont positive stock is available in different colored
celluloids, such as amber and light amber. Prints made
upon these films have a warmth of tone and richness of
appearance which can never be secured from a black and
white print. It is true that films may be tinted in any
desired colors, but the process entails an added cost which
is not encountered in the use of colored bases. It is only a
question of time until this film will be supplied in a full
range of colors.

Another incentive toward the use of the negative film is
the recent introduction of panchromatic negative stock.
This film is sensitive to all colors and does not give the
false color values seen in the ordinary picture. It makes
possible the production of attractive pictures without the
use of make-up, and makes the use of incandescent lights
entirely practical. This film opens up an entirely new
field to the enterprising amateur. He can shoot through a
red filter and secure beautiful moonlight effects in the
middle of the day, scenes which have all of the soft quality
and delicate transparency of shadow of real moonlight.

284 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Last but not least, it makes possible the truthful reproduc-
tion of beautiful landscapes with their wealth of the most
delicate gradation, and with the creamy clouds floating in a
darkening sky. Sunsets and flowers in their full riot of
color are imaged with their full range of tone. This film
alone is full justification for the use of the positive-nega-
tive process. In fact, for the amateur who is working seri-
ously and who desires the best possible results, the
positive-negative process holds tremendous possibilities.

After reading these two articles I am sure that you will
agree that the question of reversal versus two-film is not a
question of superiority but rather a question of choosing
the film which is best suited for the work in hand. Thus
the film of casual interest could be made upon the reversal
film, while the film in which color value is of importance
could be made upon panchromatic negative stock. The
two films, while competitive, should help each other, for
after all a purchaser of any commodity prefers to have a
choice in the matter rather than to be forced to purchase
just one definite thing.

There is room for both films in amateur cinematography,
both serve definite purposes and neither could be dispensed
with without the loss being felt.

In addition to the arguments set forth in the two ar-
ticles just presented, there is one other which must have
been made apparent. The reversal process, while it has
time after time been successfully performed by experi-
menters is not as practical for the home finisher as is the
two film process. Simple negative development is a fixed
chemical reaction and there is no reason whatever why
any amateur who cares to do so cannot develop his own
negatives.

Development of the Negative. — In either process, the
development of the negative offers little difficulty, it is the
exposure and development of the positive which requires
the care. In the two film process, a loss of the print means
only the loss of the film stock, for the negative, the master
film, is not injured. In addition to this, the only control

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 285

that need be exercised in the two film process is the light
control in printing. So, the amateur who desires to de-
velop his own film may easily do so, provided he equips
himself with a few simple accessories.

Home Developed Film. — It is only fair to state at this
time that the home developed film will not be in any way
superior to the commercially developed film and in most
cases it will be inferior. The saving in money will not
compensate for the time and trouble involved — but there
is that ever growing class of amateurs who love to dabble
in laboratory work, who derive from development the
greatest imaginable pleasure. To them this chapter is ad-
dressed, and because of them, suggestions are made which
would never be made in a strictly practical chapter deal-
ing with the most efficient and economical development,
for that is, as has been said, commercial finishing.

Eelation of Exposure to Development. — Before going
on with the discussion, let us again consider the supreme
importance of proper exposure. Reference to the diagram
in the appendix of this book will show the exact effect of
exposure and of development. This chart will show that
manipulation in ordinary development can never com-
pensate for errors in exposure. It is true that special de-
velopment will produce changes which may pass for such
correction, but a comparison of such a manipulated print
with one correctly made will immediately demonstrate the
superiority of the properly made film. You cannot expect
satisfaction from the development and printing of your
films unless you pay careful attention to exposure and
make intelligent use of an exposure meter.

We have noted the general effect of development. We
have seen that a reducing agent will take the bromine
from silver bromide leaving metallic silver, provided the
bromide has been exposed to light! This is true, but the
process is hardly as simple as that. It must be evident
that in a balance so delicate that light will disturb it,
there will also be other stimuli which will produce the
same effect. This is true. Excessive dampness, chemical
fumes, heat and many other stimuli will cause the same
bromide decomposition. Therefore we have to make use

286 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

of a fairly fresh film (not more than one year to eighteen
months old), and we must protect this film from chemical
fumes, excessive heat and dampness. When we are ready
to develop the film, we find that our reducer will reduce
a considerable portion of the unexposed bromide, so we
cannot use a straight reducer solution. Experiment and
research has shown that the following elements are essen-
tial in almost every successful developing solution.

Reducer. — This is the active developing agent. We
have many kinds, such as metol, hydroquinone, amidol,
pyrogallic acid, edinol, kodalon, elon, rhodol and so forth.
These agents have different qualities, most of which depend
solely upon the rapidity with which they act. Amidol will
work without the presence of a caustic alkali and is there-
fore suitable for high temperature development, and so
forth. It may be said however, that the principal differ-
ences among developers are those of rapidity of action.

Preservative. — A chemical reducer is one which has a
strong attraction for oxygen. As one of the greatest
sources of oxygen is the air, it is evident that the reducer
would rapidly remove oxygen from the air and thus become
rapidly saturated and useless for our work. Therefore we
add a preservative which tends to prevent this and which
keeps the reducer fresh and strong even when freely ex-
posed to the air. The preservative commonly used is so-
dium sulphite. (Note carefully the suffixes of chemical
names as ite means an entirely different chemical than does
ate, while ide is still another. Thus we may have sulphite,
sulphate, sulph/V/c. Watch this if you expect to avoid in-
explicable results in connection with your development).

Accellerator. — We have seen that the bromide is sus-
pended in a gelatin coating. Gelatin is hard and horny
and remains so until it has been exposed for some time to
the action of water. A sheet of gelatin will swell upon
the surface to such an extent that it begins to go into
solution before the center becomes even softened to any
appreciable extent. In development, it is highly desirable
that the developer reach all portions of the gelatin as
nearly simultaneously as possible. To accomplish this we
add a caustic alkali to the reducer. This caustic acts

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 287

upon the gelatin, partially decomposing it and so allowing
the developer to gain almost immediate access to every
stratum of the emulsion. This enables us to secure com-
plete development without excessive reduction of the
bromide in the superficial layers, which we call "fog."
Fog will ruin the brilliancy of the finest of films. Pro-
longed development will result in fog, so the deepest
stratum must be practically fully developed before the
superficial layer begins to fog. The usual accelerator is
sodium carbonate.

Restrained — It appears absurd to add a restrainer to
a solution which has just had an accelerator added. How-
ever, the restrainer restrains, not the gelatin penetration,
but the reduction itself. Thus we see that the restrainer
acts in conjunction with the accelerator, as it restrains
reduction, still further preventing fog in the superficial
strata before reduction occurs in the deeper. The restrainer
is usually potassium bromide.

Other constituents added for special purposes and usu-
ally in small quantities are citric acid, alcohol, formalin
and so forth. Actual formulae for the various solutions
needed will be found in the appendix.

You will need for this work a room which can be made
thoroughly dark, and one in which running water is avail-
able if possible. In the absence of such convenience, al-
most any room may be used after nightfall. In the way
of equipment you will need :

3 development tanks (as the Stinemann equipment
is the only equipment available at this time for
the home development of 16 millimeter films we
will assume that it is to be used)

1 film rack for development (2 racks are even better)

1 drying rack

1 16 millimeter printing machine
You will also need small items of equipment including:

1 4 oz. graduate

1 32 oz. graduate

2 stirring rods
1 thermometer

288 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

1 safelight

1 darkroom timer

1 pair scales

1 assortment chemicals.

The first step is to make up the desired quantity of de-
veloper and of hypo solution as indicated in the various
formulae. These are poured into their respective tanks
which should then contain about two inches of solution
or a trifle less. The third tank should be filled with water
to which a small quantity of glacial acetic acid has been
added. This is the "stop bath."

The next step is to extinguish all white lights and turn
on the red or "safe" light. Every step must be carried
out with this as the sole illumination until the film is
ready for washing.

A Stinemann developing rack partially loaded with film.

Process of Development. — The film rack is placed upon
its supporting pin which has been clamped to the table
edge for this purpose. The camera spool should be placed
upon your rewind and this clamped to the table near the
rack. The film is now pulled from the spool until the
paper is all unwound and the cream colored film itself
becomes visible, the paper is torn off and the end of the
film itself is now secured, at the center of the spiral, by
means of the small hook provided for the purpose. The
reel is now rotated by the left hand while the right hand
guides the film into place. Caution! Be sure that the dull

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 289

side of the film is on the outside and the polished side on
the inside in contact tvith the metal spiral!

When the film is in place, secure the outer end by means
of a film clip. Now, grasping the reel by the cross bar in
the center, remove the reel full of film from the support.
Take it to the table where the tanks are arranged. Place
the reel full of film in the developer, lowering it gently
into the solution. Start the timing clock and then raise
and lower the rack a few times in the developer, in order
to remove all air bubbles. Do this as rapidly as possible
without causing any splashing or bubble formation. Con-
tinue this for perhaps thirty seconds, then throughout the
course of development give the rack a short lift every
thirty or forty-five seconds.

When development is complete, that is when the timer
alarm rings, remove the film, rinse it in the stop bath for
perhaps ten seconds, then place it in the fixing bath where
it remains for twenty minutes. At the end of this time,
turn on the white lights. Pour out the stop bath and use
tray No. 3 for washing. Place the film in this tank and
rinse four times. Place the tank beneath the faucet and
allow a small stream of water to run into the tank for a
half hour, the overflow running off through the drain.

At the end of a half hour, release the film ends from
the rack, raise the rack from the water, place the wire
screen which comes with the tanks upon the top of the
film. Now holding the screen and rack together with the
hands, quickly reverse the whole and replace in the water.
Lift the rack from the tank. It will come up leaving the
film loosely coiled upon the screen. The rack is shaken
to remove any surplus water and hung up to dry. The
screen bearing the film is now removed from the tank and
gently shaken to remove surplus water. The outer end of
the film is attached to the drying rack. This rack is
rotated, the film being wound around it, between the pins
upon the cross bars. The film is attached to the rack by
means of the spring film clips. When the film is all on
the rack, the second end is secured as the first one was
and the rack is rapidly rotated a few seconds to throw off
any surplus water. The rack is now hung up to dry, its

290

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

position being reversed every few minutes to secure even
drying. When the film is thoroughly dry it is ready for
printing.

The Stinemann 16 m/m printer designed for amateur use.

Printing the Positive. — Before using the negative for
printing it should be carefully examined to see if any
marks have been left upon the polished side during the
process of drying. If such marks are present, the film
must be polished before being printed.

For polishing, a pad of chamois skin, dampened with
alcohol, is used. The film is run slowly between the re-
winds, and as it is drawn from the supply reel it is run,
dull side down, over a pad of clean white cloth spread
upon the rewind base. The chamois pad is rubbed briskly
along the polished surface with a scrubbing action. This

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 291

will remove any dry marks and leave the film is the best
possible condition for printing.

The film is wound up on a rewind, using a wooden core
for this purpose instead of a regular reel. It is slipped
from this core and placed in the rear one of the two
printer magazines. It is so placed that the polished side
will run down through the printer mechanism in contact
with the front Avail of the machine itself. The positive
stock is placed in the front magazine. It is now threaded
through the printer mechanism with its dull side in con-
tact with the dull side of the negative film. A few turns
are now given to the handle, and the positive cut off and
developed. Eepeated tests of this kind made with various
sizes of light aperture in the printer will soon indicate
the proper width of the light aperture for this particular
negative. Then the entire scene is printed by turning the
crank at a uniform speed using this aperture.

As the density of the negative varies with different
scenes, this test will have to be repeated for each scene.
The change of scene is shown by watching the film through
the "safe" window provided for this purpose in the front
of the printer. After some practice you will be able to
judge the proper printing aperture to be used by the ap-
pearance of the film as it passes through the machine, but
at first each scene should be tested. This film is now
developed just as the negative was. All operations of both
printing and developing the positive must be carried out
in red light.

The actual threading of the printer should be done in
strict accordance with the detailed instructions supplied
by the manufacturer.

Trick Printing. — Some very effective trick work can
be done by the careful worker using a good printing ma-
chine. For example, to produce a film showing a child
walking through a crowd of huge ants:

Using the six inch lens, reflex focusser and lens exten-
sion photograph an ant hill so that the ants will be almost
half "man" size upon the screen. Make this scene at high
speed. Try to arrange to get no ants in the immediate
foreground. With a stick, and by pulling up grass, make

292 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

a faint path. Note carefully the position of this path in
the focusser. Now upon another film make a picture of a
girl walking down a path so that she follows about the
same direction as in the small path in the ant picture.
The effectiveness will depend upon the exactitude with
which the two paths coincide. Make this shot with either
a white drop or the sky as background. Develop both
films, calling the ant hill film one and the girl film two.
Film two is developed to give an absolutely opaque back-
ground. Print film two so densely that you have a black
figure in a colorless background (negative) this is film
three. Now thread the printer using film one as the
negative, but between this and the raw positive, film three
is placed to act as a mask. Before starting to print cut a
notch at the edge of the films, and through all three films.
This notch indicates the relative positions of the films and
is called the "registration mark." Print this film, but do
not develop the print. Now carefully register films two
and three and in film two make a notch to correspond
with that in film three. Thread up the printer, having
rewound the printed positive. Eegister the notches and
print again, using this time only film two as a negative.
Now develop. If the work has been carefully done and the
printer in good condition, the two sets of images will regis-
ter and you will have the effect described. Film three is
only a mask, preventing film one from printing in the
space to be occupied by the image in film two.

White fades may be made by gradually closing the print-
ing aperture while printing. In this effect the picture
fades out until the screen is white instead of black as is
the case in the usual camera fade.

Ordinary or "black" fades are made by gradually open-
ing the printing aperture and then gradually slowing
printer speed, thus giving an increasing over-exposure to
the print.

There is one stunt which the experimenter can use to
very great advantage. This is the copying of still pictures
of various kinds for inclusion in his films. Anyone who
can make a title can do this work. Select the picture de-
sired, make a regular title set-up and make the exposure.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 293

This is now widely used for incorporating old family
portraits in the family record film.

For further suggestions in this work, the reader is re-
ferred to any good work on professional cinematography
such as the "Handbook of Motion Picture Photography"
and "Motion Picture Photography," published by the pub-
lishers of this work.

TINTING AND TONING

AMATEUR FILM

Perhaps the greatest fault of the present day motion
picture in the home is its monotony of color. The endless
repetition of black and white, particularly when the tones
are not rich, wear upon our nerves. For this reason, the
various systems of color filters for projectors have been
placed upon the market. There is no question but that
the amateur should tint and tone his films or use one
of the better types of color filter sets. This is particularly

{Courtesy American Cine Products Co.)
Tvie American Colorator which with four color screens of optically plane glass pro-
vides fifteen color tints for projection. Pressure upon any button or combination of
buttons locks the corresponding filters in position. Pressure upon the release or upon
any other button or buttons automatically removes the first ones from the field. This
device may be used with any modern 16 m/m projector and adds greatly to the
pleasure of projection.

true in view of the fact that the process of tinting and
toning, in many cases, results in intensifying the film, giv-
ing us richer tonal values than the original black and
white image possesses.

The color filters mentioned have one great advantage.

294 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

The tint of any scene may be changed at will and when
the largest possible screen size is desired, all color may be
removed, giving added illumination.

In the chapter dealing with projection we discussed the
disadvantages of the black and Avhite image upon a silvered
screen, and there we considered the color screens. The
process of tinting a film serves the same purpose. Tint-
ing a motion picture film is merely a process of dyeing or
staining the emulsion with any chosen dye. While there
are a number of troubles which can occur, there are few
which actually confront the careful worker. The only
thing to be watched is the depth of the tone, and care
must be taken to prevent uneven dyeing. The Stinemann
developing tanks are ideal for tinting and toning, as this
system allows uniform dye or toning bath penetration and
makes uniform work easy.

(Courtesy Bell & Howell)
The Filmo projector color filter attaches to the Filmo projector as shown here. With
this device any one or any comhination of the four color filters may be used to give
the projected film a tinted effect.

If we start with a film which consists of black deposits
of silver upon a transparent celluloid base, it is evident
that the various tones of gray are due to partial trans-
parency of such gray areas. If we stain the emulsion
with a dye, red for example, it is evident that we shall
have a film in which red replaces white in all proportions.
That is, the deepest shadows may remain black (opaque)
but all halftones and highlights will be shown in some
shade of red. In this case the halftones are composed of
red and black (dye and silver).

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 295

If we start with the same black and white film, and
instead of a dye, treat it with some chemical which will
turn the deposit of black silver to a solid deposit of some
other color, our deepest shadow will be the deepest shade
of the color, red for example, to which the deposit is
turned. In this case the halftones will be composed of
mixtures of red and white or just the reverse of the dyed
film, while any pure highlights will be white.

In this process, we have secured a color effect by means
of two processes which are diametrically opposed. It fol-
lows therefore that we can use both processes upon the
same piece of film. Let us consider a pink dye and a
blue tone.

Starting with the black and white film, we tone it blue.
This gives us a transparent film with a blue image. This
will have a very attractive appearance, particularly if the
scene is an early morning marine. When this film is dry,
we tint it a delicate pink. If this film is now projected
we shall have deep shadows in pure blue, halftones in
violet tones and highlights in pink. Upon the screen such
scenes are quite often mistaken for natural color films so
perfect is the gradation and color value.

The tinting bath is a mixture of water and aniline dye.
The dyes used may be obtained from the Eastman Kodak
Company. The proportions used are given below :

Cine red
Water

1.3 ounces
2 gallons

Dye for 3

minutes at 65°

to 70

Cine scarlet
Water

0.5 ounce
2 gallons

" 3

It It

tt it

Cine orange
Acetic acid
Water

0.26 ounce
0.13 ounce
2 gallons

(glacial

acid)

" 1

tt (I

tt tt

Cine yellow
Acetic acid
Water

0.5 ounce
0.13 ounce
2 gallons

(glacial acid)

" 1

tt tt

Cine green
Water

1 ounce

2 gallons

" 3

tt If

a tt

Cine blue
Water

0.5 ounce
2 gallons

" 3

(I tt

ft ft

Cine violet
Water

0.5 ounce
2 gallons

" 3

It It

(< tt

296 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Each solution will dye about 1,000 feet per gallon before
exhaustion.

An earthenware or glass vessel is used for mixing the
dye. For two gallons heat the dye in one pint of water,
stirring until solution is complete. Filter this solution
through fine muslin into the tank, then pour one more pint
of hot water through the residue in the filter to remove all
dye from the inert "filler." Then make up the dye to the
proper volume, i.e., two gallons, with cold water. The
film is agitated in the dye bath to secure evenness of
tinting, and to remove any air bubbles which may ac-
cumulate. After dyeing for the requisite length of time,
the film is rinsed in clear water for about five minutes.
After rinsing it is drained for a minute or tAvo and im-
mediately placed upon the drying rack. In placing the
film upon this rack, or immediately after, it is wiped with
absorbent cotton, the accumulated water being pressed
from the cotton at short intervals. It is important that
a sufficient quantity of water be removed to prevent the
formation of any drops upon the film. Such drops of
water become saturated with dye and form an ineradicable
spot of color upon the film. This is known as bleeding.
Also the film should be dried in a room of fairly high
humidity, as film dried rapidly in dry air has a tendency
toward uneven coloring.

It must be taken into consideration that the brilliancy
of our screen image depends upon the percentage of the
total light which is transmitted by the film. Tinted film
shows a loss of transmission ranging from 25% to 95%,
so that we must act accordingly. A rather light film
should be used for tinting, but as the tendency of amateur
film is toward thinness rather than density, the average
amateur film is about right for a light tint.

Tints must be used sparingly. A heavy vivid color is
rarely satisfactory. The very delicate tints which give a
perceptible "screen effect" without perceptible, or at least
without noticeable positive color are the best. The tint
should partake of the nature of the scene. About 95%
of the professional films are tinted, yet the spectator is
rarely conscious of this fact. The exceptions are deep

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 297

red for fire scenes, deep blue for night effects and at
times a deep green for forest scenes.

As has been said, the tinted base film gives all of the
effect of tinting, and no doubt 16 millimeter film will soon
be available in all standard tints, relieving us from dye
tinting. The tinted base stock is sufficient for all purposes
and in most ways superior to the dye tinted film. Until it
is made available, however, and in the case of existing
films, the tinting bath must be used.

Film which has been projected should be immersed be-
fore tinting in a bath made of one-half pound of sodium
carbonate in two gallons of water. This is for the purpose
of removing grease and dirt from the film. Without this
bath, a film which has been projected will undoubtedly
dye unevenly. After the carbonate bath the film is washed
thoroughly and dried before tinting. The carbonate bath
should be of from two to five minutes duration. In case
of heavy oil or grease deposits, the film may be gently
rubbed between the thumb and finger.

The treatment for toning is entirely different from that
of tinting, nor is there any substitute for the toning pro-
cess, as there is for the tinting. In toning we have three
basic tones, the uranium, iron and sulphide. The sulphide
is the familiar "sepia" tone of still photography. In this
case the film is bleached in a bath which re-converts the
metallic silver to silver bromide. This is then treated with
sodium sulphide which changes the silver bromide to silver
sulphide. (Do not confuse the sulphides with sulphates or
sulphites.) Silver sulphide in thin layers appears brown
by transmitted light, but a heavy deposit is opaque and
hence black upon the screen although brown when held in
the hand and looked at by reflected light. It is therefore
necessary to start the sulphide tone with a thin or medium
thin film.

The uranium (cold chocolate to red chalk) and the iron
(blue) tones are accomplished by the use of single solu-
tions. They also exert a slight intensifying action, so that
medium to thin films are best suited for this work. Here
again we find the average amateur film very well suited
for the work in hand, so that we find that the quality of

298 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

the film, color considerations aside, is enhanced by both
tinting and toning.

SEPIA TONING

Bath A

Potassium Ferricyanide 6.00 ounces

Potassium Bromide 1.33 ounces

Water to .* 2 gallons

Bath B

Sodium sulphide (crystals) 1.33 ounces

Water 2 gallons

The film is bleached in "A" until the image appears
uniformly yellow from the rear. It is washed 5 minutes
and placed in "B" until thoroughly toned. The film should
bleach in from two to four minutes at 65 to 70 degrees,
and should sulphide in from ten to fifteen minutes.

IPvON TONING

Ammonium Persulphate 57 grains

Ferric alum (ferric ammonium

sulphate) 145.5 grains

Oxalic acid 352 grains

Potassium ferricyanide 110 grains

Ammonium alum 581 grains

Hydrochloric acid 2 fluid drains

Water to 2 gallons

Each of the solid chemicals should be dissolved sepa-
rately in a small quantity of warm water and the solu-
tions allowed to cool. They are filtered into the tank in
the order given, and the whole diluted to the required
volume. If this is done the bath should be perfectly clear
and of pale yellow color.

The film will tone in from two to ten minutes at 70 de-
grees F. The tone varies from a light bluish-gray to a
deep, pure blue.

After toning the film is washed for ten or fifteen min-
utes until the highlights are clear. A slight yellowish
tinge may remain but this is not important. The bath

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 299

will tone about 400 feet of film, and by addition of 2 drams
of acid a second 400 feet may be toned and then by another
addition of the same quantity of acid a third 400 feet may
he toned, giving a total toning power of 1,200 feet of 16
millimeter film for the bath.

URANIUM TONE

Uranyl (Uranium) Nitrate .... 300 grains

Fotassium Oxalate 300 grains

Potassium ferricyanide 110 grains

Ammonium alum 726 grains

Hydrochloric acid 10 fluid drams

Water to 2 gallons

Mix in order given. The solution should be pale yellow.
The film will pass through a range of tones from brown
to red in about ten minutes. When the desired tone is
reached, the film is removed from the bath and washed
for ten or fifteen minutes, or until the highlights are clear,
or have at most a slight yellowish tinge. The bath will
tone about 400 feet of 16 millimeter film.

DOUBLE TONING

A deep, dull green particularly suited for forest and
similar scenes may be made by toning in uranium for about
3 minutes and then in iron for about 2 minutes, followed
by the usual washing.

Uses for Tints and Tones. — The amateur may be at a
loss to know just what tint, tone or combination to use in
any particular case. There are no hard and fast rules,
but we may give a list of some appropriate scene colors.

. Tint

Tone

Combination

Fire scenes, furnaces etc.

red

Forests

green

blue-amber

Interiors

pink-orange-
lavender

uranium-yellow

Sunlight exteriors

amber-light
amber-yellow

uranium-
sulphide

uranium-yellow

Dawn and sunset

pink

blue

blue-pink

Mountains

light amber

uranium

uranium-iron

300 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

One of the best guides to the use of tints and tones is
the study of films as they are shown in theatres. There is
no question but what the tinted film is at least fifty per-
cent superior to the black and white film, while the toned
film and the tinted and toned film are even better.

While some of these steps are difficult, the amateur will
be amply repaid for any time he spends in this work.

(Data on tinting and toning given through courtesy of Eastman
Kodak Company.)

PART TWO
The Amateur JProducer

CHAPTER TWELVE

The Art of Cinematography

The camera is the tool of the artist, and its manipula-
tion constitutes his technique. However, there is a
deeper significance to cinematography than mere perfect
technique. That is something which anyone can attain
provided enough effort and patience are given to the work.
A worth-while motion picture composition is a result of
the combination of perfect technique and the creative
spirit of the artist. Cinematography is beyond any ques-
tion a potential art and the artist-amateurs will no doubt
excel in the production of good films.

The motion picture film is a chemically produced record
of a certain scene. This may be a machine, an animal or
a landscape. It may be anything physical. However, if
the component parts of that picture are so arranged and
so move in relation to each other that we feel certain
emotions which are not in any way pictured upon the
screen, if we feel something of the impulse which motivated
the producer of this scene, that picture may well be said
to be artistic. Art is after all only the concrete expression
of an abstract emotion, and is usually a matter of "atmos-
phere" and "suggestion." The delicacy and subtilty of
such expression is usually a gauge of its worth as a work
of art.

It has long been the fashion to ridicule the idea of any
artistic worth in connection with motion pictures, yet in
the motion picture we have, potentially, the greatest art
which the world has ever known. The motion picture,
artistically considered, is not a photographic record of
dramatic art — or at least it should not be. No art can
ever be fairly judged by the standards of the technique
of another art. It is neither just nor sensible to judge

303

304 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

the motion picture by the standards of either painting,
drawing or drama. It is a new and entirely distinctive
art whose primary purpose is the presentation of motion
which is in itself attractive. In design we have lines
which of themselves are pleasing — motion picture design
represents a point travelling over that path which will, if
made permanent, reproduce the pleasing design of the
still picture. In the motion picture we have the static
made dynamic, and to the modern individual particu-
larly, the dynamic is always the more appealing.

We cannot expect to look to the present professional
screen for any revolutionary changes in motion picture
technique. Most of the actors of to-day have a theatrical
background and are slaves to theatrical technique, those
who have not, have adopted such a background from the
"old-timers," the veterans of the repertoire companies of
past years. This technique is be}Tond all shadow of a
doubt unsuited to the motion picture. In fact it is so en-
tirely unsuited that it has been proven impossible, so we
have the modern monstrous hybrid known as "movie art."

It lies with the amateur to bring the motion picture to
its true status. That is, if the amateur will hurry. There
are very hopeful signs within the industry at present, but
these signs are appearing from that much abused organi-
zation, the Motion Picture Producers & Distributors of
America. This organization is striving, and spending
huge sums in their efforts, to provide better and more
artistic pictures for you. From them, not from the actors,
or camermen, may come the truly artistic motion picture,
even before the amateur has shown the way.

Inasmuch as the amateur either directly, or indirectly
led the way to most of the worth-while improvements in
still photography, more particularly as concerns the ex-
hibition and other artistic pictures, it is not too much to
hope that this history may be repeated with regard to the
motion picture. For this reason, and in the hope that a
hint may be given which will indicate the proper direc-
tion for experiment, this chapter is included in this book.
Moreover, even failing in this, there is no doubt that the
effort spent by the amateur in trying to produce the good

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 305

film will result in a much higher average quality in
amateur films in general.

The name of Colonel Roy W. Winton, who is the manag-
ing director of the Amateur Cinema League, is probably
known to every amateur in the country. At luncheon one
day he remarked that the motion picture was essentially
"unlimited motion dramatically applied." Let us study
that statement carefully, for therein probably lies the
secret of the motion picture art.

Unlimited motion means just that. There is no limit
to the duration, direction or speed of the motion depicted.
The dramatic application is however a more serious ques-
tion. Drama as we are familiar with it, is merely the
dramatization of life. A series of situations from life are
so assembled that there is not only a distinct continuity
of action, but each succeeding scene is more portentous and
has a deeper significance than the preceding one. This
definite rising scale serves to raise our emotions in relation
to its own progress. Finally we have the scene of the
greatest importance, the culmination of the various se-
quences of the drama, and with a very brief finale to bring
the theme to a fitting close, our drama is ended. Many
dramas may be made directly from life without other
alteration than the stripping away of extraneous detail and
the condensation of the time elapsed into a relatively
short period.

What of the dramatic application of motion? In pic-
torial art of the still variety, we have more or less elastic,
yet definite laws concerning composition. Any variation of
the position of an object may easily cause the destruction
of a fine bit of composition. Obviously then we must dis-
card static composition when we come into the considera-
tion of motion picture art. We must use motion so
dramatically that we create dynamic design, composition
in motion !

To do this we must give some little study to motion,
abstract motion ! We will find that any type of motion
will give rise to a corresponding emotion or mental in-
terpretation, and what is still more important, this type
of motion will alwavs stimulate similar mental reactions.

306 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

There is nothing haphazard nor arbitrary about this. We
may observe two men sitting upon a bench. We will ac-
cept the statement that they are identical in appearance.
They rise and walk away, and then we make the statement
that one is energetic, purposeful and with a driving per-
sonality, while the other is calm, self-possessed and prob-
ably an accomplished idler. Both may be gentlemen in
every sense of the word, charming, polished and with all
social virtues, but their motion reveals two entirely dif-
ferent personalities. In this we approach unconscious
dramatic motion.

The most common good example of cultivated dramatic
motion will be found in well trained aesthetic dancers.
In modern times there is too much tendency to confuse
the acrobatic and ballet dancer with the interpretative
dancer. The interpretative dancer does not sway, nor
jump, nor bounce about to a syncopated rhythm. Eather,
she glides, hesitates, leaps, her body responds instantly
and completely to the scintillations of her mood, and the
music is or should be but an accompaniment to the chang-
ing mood of the dance.

Dramatic motion is not necessarily, in fact it necessarily
is not, harmonious motion. Harmony and drama are in-
compatible. Dramatic motion includes harmonious se-
quences abruptly broken by crashing discords, as the in-
terpretation demands. This is the most apparent differ-
ence between the interpretative and the ballet dancer. At
any rate, we find thai it is possible to convey a definite im-
pression, to interpret a definite emotion through the
medium of motion alone.

Shall we then devote our screens to films of Greek
dancers? Hardly! The interpretative dance is but the
raw material from which we reconstruct the dramatic
action.

Just what then, is the artistic motion picture as we
may expect to see it upon the screen? It is not, after all
very different from the usual modern type of picture. In
the usual picture to-day the whole interest is centered in
the story; to use a far fetched simile, it is as though a
song were sung for the words alone without regard for

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 307

the melody. We must have a story, it is true, but with
this difference, it must have the "melody" of dramatic ac-
tion to carry the story along. We do not need nearly so
much of the melodrama as is now commonly used. In
fact many simple stories which would be "duds" under
the present method of production would make photodramas
of such appeal that they would transcend in grandeur
the most spectacular million dollar production ever re-
corded upon celluloid.

This idea is not entirely foreign to present day practice.
The modern actor is inclined to place too much respon-
sibility upon his facial muscles. He "registers" an emotion
rather than "interpreting" it with his whole body. He
often carries a funereal face hung grotesquely upon a
laughing body. If our modern actors and directors could
but learn to make the actor "all face," if they would but
study the soundly founded scientific phases of emotional
motion, and if the cameramen would learn to substitute
dramatic lighting for decorative or novelty lightings, the
long step would be almost completed.

As the ridiculous and the sublime are often separated
only by a hair, so the artistic motion picture drama and
the present "chromo" method are so nearly alike that there
will be many individuals who will not be able to discern
the new from the old, but when this millenium does ap-
pear, and we have motion pictures which use true dramatic
motion instead of the existing theatrical interpretations
grafted upon a photographic process, we shall find that the
highly cultured people who now are indifferent toward or
antagonistic toward the motion picture will give it their
support and that the motion picture will finally be en-
throned in its proper place, as the greatest as well as the
youngest, of the fine arts.

So much for theory. What about actual practice?
There is nothing definite which can be said concerning the
production of the ultimate photodrama by the amateur.
But there is a wide field for experimentation. For ex-
ample, a group of students of this problem made a 100 foot
(10 mm.) reel which endeavored to portray a definite se-
quence of emotions, the faces of the actors being obscured

308 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

to such an extent that facial interpretation was impos-
sible! The results were not perfect by any means but
they were interesting and gave promise of much that
might be of great interest. Such experimental work as
this is to be recommended for use by the amateur and
there is little question but that something of value will
arise from such work.

Perhaps the first step will be the compilation of a dic-
tionary of motion. This dictionary will consist of from
400 to 2,000 feet of film divided into short scenes, each of
which illustrates some basic action. In making this, the
emotion is first of all determined. When this is done, a
suitable style of motion is decided upon and this is re-
hearsed until it is perfected. Then, and then only the ac-
tor will perform before the camera. In this way the
various actions will not only become familiar, but a per-
manent record will be made which can be referred to at
any time.

No detailed instructions will be given for these actions.
This is something which is not yet fixed by convention and
each experimenter is at full liberty to work as he sees best.
Some of you will evolve the perfect motion interpretation
for one or more emotions. When this is done, perhaps the
convention must be established.

Just remember that curves are harmonious, angles are
discordant. Vertical motion gives the impression of dig-
nity and grandeur, oblique motion is strongly dynamic
while horizontal motion is calm and of more stative char-
acter. Smoothly continuous action corresponds to the
curve while an intermittent, jerky motion is analogous to
the angle.

It is admitted immediately that such an interpretation
is not according to the existing facts of actual life, but
we are not dealing with a portrayal of life — that is the
present status of the motion picture. We are dealing with
art, which is a representation of an emotion. Let us take
the opera for example. It is admitted to be the highest
form of dramatic art. Do we ever, in real life, find groups
of people wandering about singing of their innermost se-
cret troubles? Hardlv! Yet this fact does not take from

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 309

grand opera the slightest portion of its attractiveness.

In our film play we may have a villain. He is not an
individual of questionable character — in our drama he is
evil, the personification of abstract evil ! His make-up
itself carries out the idea. Here let us refer again to the
professional motion picture. We are all familiar with the
remarkable characterizations of Chaney. Never in real
life have we seen faces which resemble his make-up, yet
he succeeds in giving the exact impression which is de-
sired. He uses an artistic rather than literal make-up!
In one of his famous characterizations, the "Phantom of
the Opera" there was nothing particularly terrible in any
single feature of his make-up. It was unpleasant of course,
but an exactly similar visage upon a living person would
inspire only pity in our minds. Whence came the appal-
ling aversion inspired by this make-up? The shading on
the face was angular, the face rough-hewn, the motion
upon the stage of a staccato character. The entire im-
personation was designed, not to represent a human in-
dividuality, but rather to create an atmosphere of evil.
Retaining costume and make-up, that is the grease-paint
design upon the face and the other artifices employed, but
changing the motions would have given an entirely dif-
ferent character to the Phantom. Thus, perhaps uncon-
sciously, perhaps consciously, the world has acknowledged
Chaney to be an artist. The fact is unmistakable. His
artistry would have been just as great had he elected to
remain in "straight" rather than "character" roles. He
does not portray an individual, but a personification of
an emotion !

With these few hints, those of you who feel the urge
of creation may proceed with a new and better form of
motion picture drama.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

Amateur Films

The camera is the tool in the hands of the artist. This is
true without regard to the nature of the films made. The
camera as a mechanism remains mechanical, just as the
brush and canvas of the artist are simple mechanical con-
trivances. Furthermore, the manipulation of the camera
constitutes the technique of motion picture art. Again
this is more or less standardized. Technique is scientific
to the extent that definite rules concerning it may be laid
down. But, the final product, the projected image upon
the screen, is the result of something far more intangible,
far more subtle and of infinitely greater value than these
mechanistic details. This something is the artistry of the
producer! It involves creation, and creation comes only
with purposeful production !

If we film a pendulum swinging, that is nothing beyond
photography of motion such as might be used for investi-
gation regarding the mechanism of the illusion of motion
photography, but it is not production. However, mark
this, the same shot might become a vital part of a produc-
tion if inserted in the proper place in a film where it would
convey a definite impression to the spectator !

The individual, component scenes of a motion picture
are rarely intelligible. The deftness shown in weaving
the scenes together marks the difference between the artist
director and his "rule-of-thumb" brother. So production
consists not of recording scenes upon celluloid, but in so
arranging these records that the spectator receives a
definite impression which is not projected and which is
usually of such nature that it is not subject to physical
representation ! This is the art of direction. This is
in turn combined with the graphic art in which each move-

310

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 311

ment of each subject is made in accordance with the laws
of harmonious motion. This is the art of motion photog-
raphy. This harmony is in turn attuned to the spirit
of the scene portrayed. Just as we have intense emotion
brought on in music by the introduction of resounding
chords and clashing discords in opposition, so we can
secure intense emotional effects by the opposition of the
utmost heights of harmonious motion and harsh, "angular"
motion.

As these two arts must be brought into harmony in
order to achieve the sublimity of an artistic production
and to escape the imminent danger of becoming ridiculous,
it is essential that cameraman and director be one in-
dividual. This new conception of the motion picture art,
which holds such promise to the amateur, will probably
never become commercially successful until the camera-
man and director are combined in one individual with an
assistant to watch the motor driven camera.

With the director and cinematographer combined in one
individual we have the entire essential personnel of a pro-
ducing "company" for this individual may work with
inanimate subjects.

Thus we see that production, no matter how simple, nor
how ambitious does not necessarily need a company. One-
man production has been repeatedly attempted, and re-
peatedly it has been unusually successful, both in pro-
fessional and amateur motion photography. Any camera
owner who wishes to spend just a little time and thought
can turn his haphazard films into productions of interest.
He can call to his aid as many assistants as he can inter-
est or as many as he may want. Conversely he may work
entirely alone, but this is incidental.

The one thing which is essential for successful produc-
tion is the precedence of purpose over exposure.

It is quite excusable for the snap-shooter armed with
his two dollar black box to go out and shoot the giraffe's
legs and the hippo's ears at the zoo. We can excuse him
when he lops off Mary's feet and gets the family domicile
falling down a hill side. We only smile when he tries
to "steal" shots of beautiful (?) girls upon the sidewalks,

312 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

but we hope, at least, that amateur cinematography has
risen slightly above that level. In the motion camera you
have a wonderful instrument of marvelous precision. You
wouldn't use a new sedan to haul away your ashes, then
do not use a motion camera for aimless photography. Do
not touch the release button of your camera until yon
know what you are going to shoot and why you are going
to shoot it. When you know these two things you are
well upon the way to production.

{Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
The Cine Kodak may be used at eye level by the use of the direct finder.

"Snap-shot" is a purely artificial word. It denotes just
what it expresses, a "snap" exposure, one made on the
spur of the moment with little or no preparation, and in
contradistinction from the rapidly made but expert ex-
posure, it carries with it the insinuation that the maker
is ignorant of even the most elementary theory of photog-
raphy. How different is the case of the alert, expert
photographer, who will swing his camera into action, and
often secure a photograph in less time than is taken by the
amateur, but in the latter case the photographer has used
the proper diaphragm, lias mentally analyzed his sub-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 313

ject and has made an exposure which will emphasize the
points of greatest interest in his subject.

Break Shots. — It often happens that the cinematog-
rapher, especially when he is travelling, is confronted with
an unexpected subject which is of such nature that an im-
mediate exposure is necessary if the film is to be secured
at all. This type of subject we call a "break/' a term
borrowed from newsreel work. In the "snap-shot" we
have a shot made blindly, with no attention to lightfall,
stop, or character of subject. In the case of the "break

(Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
The Cine Kodak is provided with a brilliant reflecting finder which makes possible its

use at waist level.

shot" we have a shot quickly made, yet with properly ad-
justed lens, with due attention paid to the nature and
fall of light and in fact to every phase of the work which
will aid in adding quality to the print. Never forget that
the end result is the positive film.

Film Classification. — Amateur films may be divided
into several groups. Some of these groups overlap, and
one film may properly belong to two or three classes
simultaneously, but such an arbitrary division will give
us a basis for discussion. These are :

314 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

The Break Shot — This has been fully discussed. It is a
shot of an unexpected subject and necessitates the utmost
precision in the correlation of mental and physical action.

The Planned Shot — In this case we have a shot which
we have studied and planned in a certain manner. We
are familiar with the light, the subject, the proper ex-
posure to be given, the probable duration of the shot and
the general nature of the action involved during this time.

The Home Shot — In such cases we have all of our ap-
paratus more or less near by and we do not have to use
the same care in preparing for the exposure. The sur-
roundings are familiar and we will no doubt, work more
at ease than we otherwise would.

The Shot Abroad — This does not necessarily mean
Europe! The shot abroad is any exposure made away
from home, no matter whether it is made in a neighbor's
back yard or in Timbuctoo. In such work, care must be
taken to see that all necessary items of equipment are in-
cluded. It is somewhat embarrassing to find, when you
are ready to shoot, that you have nothing at hand in the
way of optical equipment except a telephoto lens. And it
is even more exasperating to find that you have no film.
Check up the equipment carefully. If you can do so
secure a carrying case in which there is a definite place
for each item of this equipment and see that each item is
in its place before starting out.

Interior Shots — Interior shots are the most valuable
of all, and in some cases the most difficult to make. To
avoid trouble and insure success the cinematographer
must supply himself with either a very fast lens or a
battery of arc lights or both.

Exterior Shot — Only the opposite of the above.

Straight Record — In Avhich the film is nothing but a
record of some subject over which the cameraman has no
control whatever. This will form the majority of shots
made by travellers.

Controlled Shots — This includes the amateur playlets,
family record scenes and others in which the actors are
more or less subject to the direction of the cameraman.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 315

Manipulated Shots — In which some trickery is re-
sorted to.

Thus we see that the majority of travel shots will be
straight, exterior, break shots made abroad while the
amateur photo-play will be usually interior, planned, con-
trolled and at times manipulated shots. Practically every
shot which is made will fall into one or more of the fore-
going groups.

As the success of the break shot depends upon the extent
to which the technique of cinematography has been mas-
tered, there is but little to say regarding it in this place.
Part One of this book is the part which is of interest to the
man making a break shot. On the other hand, cinema-
tographic technique is really of minor importance in the
planned shot as here we have the cinematic technique sup-
planting the cinematographic. The emotional character-
istic supplants photography as the essential quality.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

RECORD FILMS

Record films comprise, perhaps, the majority of all films
produced by the amateurs of the world. In the United
States, which is after all the country of the movies, there
is a considerable inclination toward the "Little Cinema"
movement, but even here, the recorders will outclass the
photo-dramatists. The artist, the cinematographic artist
as opposed to the cinematic artist, is so rare that he must
be considered as an individual and not as a representative
member of a typical class.

The record film presents to us a reproduction of "Things
as they were." It is a true reproduction of some scene or
event which at one time actually existed. As such it has
historical value. Whether this value be personal, regional
or national depends upon the nature of the subject, but as
it is recognized that a film of little Jimmie is more highly
prized by his parents than would be a film of the visit of
the Prince of Wales, we must not allow our prejudices to
force us to undervalue the personal history as reproduced
and recorded on film.

The point of most importance to be watched in making
the record is that of photographic technique. When this
is done there is little else that can be done to add to the
chances of success.

If the subject is one which is repeated at frequent in-
tervals and one which may be made at any time, the best
plan is to study it carefully at different hours and under
different light conditions. In this way Ave can make an
intelligent choice of time. This will do much toward mak-
ing a success of the film. If such conditions do not exist,
the shot must be made as best it can, choosing point of
view and light fall as far as may be possible.

316^

317

318 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

As the record shots comprise the greater percentage of
travel, picnic, vacation and similar shots, this type of work
will be discussed here.

Before leaving home the camera and all accessories
should be thoroughly examined and conditioned for the
work in hand. The camera itself should be carefully
brushed out with a soft, camel's hair brush. After this is
done, look carefully to see that no hairs from the brush
have remained caught in the mechanism. The details of
the film are magnified 100 diameters or more so that a
very small bit of dust or foreign matter will cause a
marked spot upon the screen. Also, grit, dust and bits of
film may get jammed in the gate and scratch the film as
it is being exposed. A dirty camera is inexcusable, and
the first thing to be done before starting out to make pic-
tures, is to thoroughly cleanse the camera.

The motion camera is essentially a mechanical device,
and like all mechanical devices it will not properly operate
unless all rubbing surfaces are protected from each other
by a thin layer of oil. Still cameras, and particularly
their shutters should never be oiled, but the motion cam-
era must be properly oiled if it is going to give continuous
satisfactory service. In oiling the camera the manufac-
turers directions should be followed explicitly. The oil
holes provided are marked, either upon the camera itself
or in some manual or direction card.

The oil to be used should be the finest watch oil. The
usual heavy bodied lubricating oils are too heavy for the
delicate mechanism, while the various very light "patent"
oils are worthless as they have no lubricating body and are
absolutely inefficient for motion picture camera work. At
times, for some reason or other the oil in a motion picture
camera will become heavy and gummy. This may be due to
evaporation of a low grade oil, leaving behind a certain
resinous deposit or it may be due to the accumulation of
dust and grit by the oil. This deposit must be removed.
It is hardly advisable to scrape it off with any metal tool
for this will mar the mechanism. A better way is to secure
a large water color "wash" brush and a bottle of grease
solvent such as "Carbona." The solvent is applied to the

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

319

deposit with the large brush, taking care not to allow an
excess of the solvent to fall into the mechanism proper.
By this means all old oil may be removed from the mech-
anism. After this the parts are thoroughly dried by wip-
ing with a soft, clean cloth and then subjecting the
mechanism to a draft of warm air such as is supplied by
one of the inexpensive hair driers. When this is done,
fresh oil is applied.

An excessive amount of oil should always be avoided,
for oil spots upon the film will inevitably result in a
spotted positive whether the reversal or two film process
is used.

When the camera is thoroughly cleaned and has been
tried out to see if it is functioning properly, attention is
turned to the accessories. When possible a special case
should be purchased or constructed which will provide a
place for the camera and for all accessories. Such a case
may be easily made of plywood or similar material. Inside
the lid should be placed a list of the accessories which
should be in the case. For the average traveller's use this
list will contain:

(Courtesy Bell & Howell)
A case which will contain the camera and all of its accessories will often prove to be
of great value. The Filmo case shown here has proven popular.

Camera, winding key, reflecting focusser, filter holder,
light yellow filter, compact folding tripod, ball head for
tripod, Dremophot meter, scene record, outside iris, f 1.5

320 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

lens, 2 inch lens, 4 inch lens, sliding base, mask box and 12
rolls of film. In a small box inside the case will be carried
a tool kit consisting of jeweller's hammer, 3 small punches,
round nose pliers, square nose pliers, pin vise, assorted
screwdrivers, 2 camel's hair brushes y2 inch and % inch,
scissors, and a small roll of wire with one of adhesive tape.
A changing bag will often prove useful on extended jour-
neys in case the film buckles or otherwise becomes jammed
after some very valuable shots have been made upon a roll
of film.

This is a complete outfit such as would be carried on a
transcontinental tour or a trip abroad. For the shorter
vacation trip, the extra lenses may be dispensed with al-
though the f 1.5 and the 6 inch will always come in handy.
Also, the reflex focussing device is practically indispensa-
ble. This may also be said of the Dremophot, so in this
case we have a far more compact outfit with which to work,
yet one which will adequately serve our purposes.

Before making exposures in unfamiliar localities, espe-
cially in foreign countries it is well to determine whether
or not photography is forbidden in that place. There are
many places where photography is absolutely forbidden,
and such places are not always designated by public warn-
ings such as signboards. The position of a cinematographer
caught making film in a forbidden spot in a foreign coun-
try is pitiable, for, especially in Europe, the constant fear
of espionage has become a mania and concerning this
"crime" many Europeans are as unreasonable as other
monomaniacs. There will be little of this spirit encoun-
tered in English speaking countries. However, even in
our own country there are certain locations such as some
parks, museums, art galleries, military and naval reserva-
tions and so forth where photography is prohibited or only
permitted under a written permission. The reasons are
various and usually well founded. In case application for
permission is made it will usually be granted. Naturally
there are some parts of military and naval reservations
where this work is absolutely prohibited.

In addition to these difficulties, there are many people
who as individuals and races object to having their photo-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 321

graphs made. These objections are principally religious
and superstitious. This objection will be encountered in
many different parts of the world, but more particularly
among the primitive Christian races and among practi-
cally all semi-civilized races who have learned what the
camera is. Curiously enough there is little such objection
among the more truly savage races.

To particularize, there are communities in Holland
where the photographer risks severe personal chastisement
if he is discovered making photographs of the inhabitants
who believe that if they are photographed, even uncon-
sciously, that they are party to a sin against the tenets of
their religion. Among many Oriental peoples there is a
belief that the camera lens is the original "evil eye."
Among our own Indians many believe that the possessor
of a photograph may bring death to the individual whose
image is upon the photograph by merely destroying the
print. These are not half recognized beliefs as are our pet
superstitions, but absolute convictions, and as such the
punishment meted out to the photographer by these
peoples is often severe indeed.

Stealing Shots. — Naturally these facts make the films
in question the more valuable. The still photographer will
often secure a snap and get away with it, but the cinema-
tographer who has to secure an exposure which lasts for
an appreciable length of time has a different problem to
face. There are three ways of securing this type of film.
The first, most obvious and least successful is to sling the
camera at hip level and to "shoot blindly" from this posi-
tion. However, in this case the lens is obviously pointed
at the subject and almost inevitably the whir of the mech-
anism will attract his attention, and then the holiday
starts.

The next best method to use in this work is the use of
the six inch lens. It is often possible to secure a shot from
a distance of seventy five or a hundred feet that would be
impossible from a distance of twenty-five or thirty. These
primitive peoples seem not to have learned that some of
these "guns" are "long range" but even so, if the operator
looks too closely at his subject or is too obvious in his

322

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

technique he may be seen and his film lost if no more
serious effects occur.

The last and best method is the prismatic method. This
is accomplished either by the use of the prismatic finder
or the reflex focusser. In this case the operator stands with
his side toward the subject and is evidently absorbed in
the contemplation of a scene in front of him and disinter-
ested in the subject above all else. There is a phase of
aboriginal psychology which helps the cinematographer in
such a case as this. These people are more or less childish
and therefore curious — nor is this description limited to

{.Courtesy Amateur Movie Makers)
Scenes like this make the travel film really worth while.

the members of the races which we call primitive, the same
holds true of people in all stages and strata of society.
These people will crane their necks to see what it is all
about and be perfectly happy as long as the camera is not
pointed at them individually. Thus if the cinematographer
is a good actor, and asks those in front of him to move
aside, even when this is unnecessary, and squint and gaze
at the scene in front of him, and talk about it to his com-
panions, if any, he can get away with everything short of
murder and bring away a wonderful set of films.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 323

There is some ethical question involved in such work,
but when the objection is founded upon religious scruples
or superstitious fear, no harm is done as long as the sub-
ject is unconscious of the fact that his likeness has been
made. Therefore there is not the slightest ethical objection
to such stealing, perhaps the only theft which may be
whole-heartedly sustained by the most moral of people.

Poor Light. — In travel work, there are often scenes, in
fact entirely too many for the peace of mind of the ama-
teur, which are just a bit too dimly lighted, many in inte-
riors and many which occur upon dark days. There is one
answer to this, do not start any extensive journey without
your fast lens, and of these the most rapid is the Plasmat
f 1.5, whose enormous aperture enables one to secure films
in ordinary interiors without artificial light. Naturally
under such conditions, and more particularly when work-
ing in a strange country where the relative visual and ac-
tinic powers of the light are unknown, the Cinophot will
be used or the Dremophot. In this way properly exposed
film is assured.

Scenic Panoramas. — In preparing travel films as such,
for future projection at home, there is a definite plan to
be followed. The scene is introduced as a whole and then
details are shown when desirable. In most cases the first
view will be panoramic. This is necessitated by the fact
that the lateral dimension of any scene greatly exceeds the
vertical, and as we wish to practically fill the frame ver-
tically, we must panoram to show the whole scene. Now
unless a panorama is properly made it is a distressing
thing to view and then the film is better off without it.
The panorama must be made slowly, the horizontal axis of
the scene must remain constant, and the rate of progress
must be uniform. These conditions are practically impos-
sible to meet with the hand held camera, and the friction
tripod is not always fully satisfactory. A geared tripod
will secure this effect, but the best way of all is by use of
the Hayden Automatic panoram head. This is a geared
head driven by the camera motor. If the tripod is care-
fully levelled, the panorama will be slow, uniform and in
a perfect lateral line.

324 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Landscapes. — As many of the films made during travel-
ling are purely landscape, a new problem is introduced.
At best about one-third of the film will be sky. The usual
amateur sky is pure white and this robs the scene of any
possibility of beauty. Clouds are incidental, but most im-
portant adjuncts to pictorial representation of a landscape.
Even the cloudless sky has a definite tone which should
be shown. The traveller's kit will contain an assortment
of filters, two yellow, one light and one medium and it
will also contain a cemented, graduated sky filter. These
will practically insure the proper sky tone in the picture
while the exposure meter will indicate the necessary com-
pensation for the filter.

The mention of the landscape brings up another point.
The motion picture is essentially a picture of motion. It is
evident that motion must be included if the film is to be
of the most satisfactory type. For this reason, a figure is
usually introduced into the foreground of the scene. This
figure should be appropriate, either one of the party or
better yet a native of the country in costume. But what-
ever the figure, it must be apparently unconscious of the
camera and posed as though regarding the scene. If there
is a point of particular interest this figure may well in-
dicate it by pointing. If this figure is well managed, it
will add greatly to the value of the film.

Tropical Work. — Finally, if travelling in tropical coun-
tries, provide yourself with a number of tin film cans and
a roll or so of adhesive tape. Place the fresh film in these
cans and wrap the joint with tape, then Avhen the film is
removed from the camera place them in this can and re-
tape. If the climate is warm and humid, it is well to carry
a small quantity of calcium chloride, and a large tin box
about «ix or eight inches square. The chloride is heated
until powder dry and placed in the box. The film is then
placed in the box with the lid of the film can open. The
lid of the box is closed and the film allowed to remain for
an hour. The box is then opened and the film can imme-
diately closed and taped. This will keep the films in better
condition than would be otherwise possible.

The points to be observed in making travel films may

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 325

be well adapted to making week-end and vacation films.
The reflex device will often enable yon to secure films of
friends without their knowledge, while the introduction of
the slow motion and reverse will enable you to secure films
which will both surprise and delight the subjects when it
is projected.

Needless to say landscapes demand the same treatment
whether an hour's drive from home or on the opposite side
of the world. In fact vacation and holiday filming provide
excellent practice for the longer journey.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

ANALYTIC AND INSTRUCTION RECORD WORK

The record film may be one of such an infinite variety of
subjects that it is difficult to choose those which should
be mentioned and those which should not. While the sub-
standard film is of great and undeniable value in many
kinds of business and professional activities, such uses of
the substandard film are hardly appropriate for inclusion
in the present volume. We are now solely concerned with
the motion picture camera as a companion in our moments
of relaxation and pleasure. Of course, most of the prin-
ciples set forth in this book can and should be applied to
any form of substandard motion photography, but we can-
not consider the actual details of commercial work here.

Sports. — Few of us are primarily cinematographers, al-
though the writer must plead guilty to the charge. Most
owners of motion pictures are devoted to some particular
sport or hobby and many of them have been introduced to
the pleasure of motion photography by this sport. There
is no question but what the motion camera is of great value
to any sportsman, either as a means of recording the pleas-
ures attendant upon such sport, or as a means of criticism
and instruction.

We may arbitrarily divide some of the major sports into
these classes : The organized and exhibition sports such as
football, basketball, baseball and polo. The individual
sports such as archery, fencing, golf, tennis, swimming and
dancing and field sports such as hunting, fishing and
shooting. Other sports may be placed in one or another
of the three classes.

The exhibition sports necessitate two phases of activity,
the training or preparation and the culmination of this
training period in the actual occurrence. In work of

326

327

328 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

this kind, the motion camera is valuable in many ways.
During the period of training the slow motion film will
reveal the faults and mistakes of the individual players
and by showing these players their errors in detail they are
enabled to overcome such mistakes in the shortest possible
time. This method is made use of in several of our larger
Universities. Later during the actual game, the motion
camera gives us a valuable record of the event. At this
time, too, a positive record may be made which will abso-
lutely eliminate any controversy concerning certain plays,
after the game is over. In this way the films have proven
very valuable in connection with the recent championship
boxing bouts. The final use of the camera in such sports
is for securing an analysis of the tactics of the opposing
team and the individual players of such a team.

In the individual sports, that is the sports which require
specific training, and which require physical activity on
the part of the individual himself, the motion camera is
of even greater value than in the case of the exhibition
sports.

Slow Motion in Sports. — Here we have a physical ac-
tivity which is satisfactory only in direct relation to the
perfection attained in the coordination of brain and
muscle. In fencing, golf and tennis the actual motion is
too rapid for the eye to really perceive it. Here we find the
slow motion camera to be of great help. In the beginning,
slow motion films are made of your action, engaged in these
sports. Later another set is made and compared with the
first set. This provides one with a critical analysis of the
motions, but does not directly indicate the necessary cor-
rection. The next step is to make a set of slow motion films
showing some expert in action. This provides a "check
list" to accompany your own films. Now after looking at
yourself in slow motion, look at the film of the professional
and note the places where the discrepancies appear.

So efficient has this plan proven that a series of golf
films have been placed upon the market for the sole pur-
pose of teaching others to play, and to aid golfers to im-
prove their form.

Many skilled trades and most athletic sports depend

329

330 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

upon extremely rapid, exactly coordinated action. This is
something which must be learned slowly for as the eye is
unable to follow the details of the action, only repeated
trial and error will bring proficiency. But when the slow
motion camera presents the analysis of the action to the
eye, one can become proficient in these actions almost im-
mediately. The use of such motion analysis films for teach-
ing purposes has proven surprisingly successful.

Let us consider the aesthetic dancer. Most of her move-
ments cannot be slowed down for purposes of demonstra-
tion because they are rendered possible only by reason of
the speed which overcomes gravity. The dancing instruc-
tor can only repeat the motion time after time with the
student vaguely trying to imitate her. In this case the
slow motion camera makes each individual muscular con-
traction plainly apparent, and the student finds his task
far easier than ever before. Not only is this true, but the
same method of analysis will enable the dancer, herself, to
recognize and eliminate the subtle points of poor tech-
nique which have crept in to mar her work.

In fencing the slow motion camera is a boon indeed. The
greatest charm of fencing is the flash and flicker of the
blade, and even the master loses his lightness and grace of
movement when he tries to make a thrust slowly in order
to show the student the proper method.

In fact all such sports and activities may be made doubly
interesting by the judicious use of the motion picture cam-
era. But even so, this does not complete the roster of
sports which lend themselves to motion photography.

The field sports, fishing, hunting, shooting, riding, rac-
ing— all of them bring repeated pleasure by being pro-
jected time after time. It is true that in these cases the
film is rarely more than a record of the event itself, but
this is sufficient. In all athletics and most artificial sport
there is a sense of health-building, or duty and of physical
exertion, a sense of the material and of the gross. Of all
the artificial sports perhaps only fencing and dancing are
free of this shadow. But the field sports ! What a differ-
ence there is ! There mankind knows the pure unadulter-
ated peace of perfect content. There is no thought of

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

331

struggle, of victor and vanquished, nothing but a thor-
oughly enjoyable period of time, which is so near perfec-
tion that the mere reproduction of it upon the screen later
on will bring back a ghost of that joy to lighten the work-
aday world. There is a magic in the field which exists no-
where else, and which the motion camera can capture in
full. The films made by the sportsmen in the field will be
enjoyed by everyone who is fortunate enough to see them,
and they will revive the most pleasant of memories. There
is little reason for the film afield to be more than straight
record.

(Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co.)
Cine Kodak Model A equipped with telephoto lens. This equipment finds great favor
with hunters who are using it instead of their more destructive guns.

The Hunt. — In making hunt pictures, the best proced-
ure is to find a location where the approach of the hunt
will have an appropriate setting or "framing." When the
hunt can be heard approaching, especially if the horses
are to emerge from a wood, crank a few seconds on the
empty scene, for the initial appearance of the horses

332 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

breaking from the wood makes a most impressive shot. It
is better to set the camera so that the axis cuts the path of
the hunt at a fairly sharp angle and to make the entire
shot from this setting than it is to try to panoram on the
hunt. If the horses appear in the middle distance and
leave the frame at one side or the other of the foreground,
the effect of the impetuous spirit of the hunt is carried into
the film while a panoramed shot is merely a shot of a group
of horses and riders galloping by.

The Field. — The bird hunter forms a different problem.
Here we have a series of scenes which are effective only
when taken from various angles, and Ave have conditions
which are more amenable to the circumstances encountered
in still photography than in motion work. There is usu-
ally only a short period when the scene may be presented
most effectively. In the course of the hunt, unless there
is a background which is attractive in itself, the scene is
merely that of dogs dashing about and the hunter in his
nondescript clothing pulling at a disreputable pipe as he
trudges along. But let the dog scent a bird. Then the
scene changes instantly, in fact usually so quickly that the
full beauty is lost before the cinematographer can get into
action. The dog stops and "freezes," the front leg lifts and
the animal stands as though posing for a sculptor. The
man's whole attitude changes, he becomes alert and watch-
ful, his gun held at "ready." Then comes a soft whirr of
wings, a jerk of the gun, a crashing report and it is all
over, with possibly less than five seconds of real action.

Fishing. — Likewise, in the fishing picture, either the
most beautiful part of the film is lost or a lot of film is
wasted. The fisherman swings his rod and casts his min-
now into the edge of a shadowy pool. This alone will
make a beautiful shot. But when a ten or twelve pound
Southern Bass hits the bait a smashing blow and the fight
begins, that is the time which brings to the cinematog-
rapher the chance of a lifetime. Such a film is almost
impossible to secure properly and when it has been secured
the amateur has a film really worth keeping.

Perhaps the field sports should not include races. Rac-
ing is a distinct form of sport and practically the same pro-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 333

cedure will be followed in any race. As far as motion
pictures are concerned the horses (running) and motor-
boats provide the best subjects. Automobile races look too
much like a circus, and even cross country automobile
racing is not very picturesque at the start and finish, and
those are two events which must be secured in connection
with any race film. A comparison of the two big classics
at Indianapolis and Louisville will show the great differ-
ence in motion picture possibilities between the horses and
the automobiles.

So throughout the sequence of sporting records we find
that our films are straight records of the event itself, made
for purposes of future entertainment ; slow motion analyt-
ical records made for the express purpose of providing a
final answer to any question which may arise after the
event has been completed; either normal or slow motion
analytical records of a competitor made for the purpose
of analysing and combating his tactics and the slow motion
record made for the purpose of criticising and improving
one's own errors.

There are of course, times when the films made exceed
the limits laid down here. This is to be expected, for the
classification used herein is arbitrary and used for con-
venience rather than as a strict, scientific classification.
For example the yachtsman will use his camera not only
for race records, but he will use it to supplement his log
during cruises. This of course brings his work over the
line of sports films into the field of travel films, but in this
particular case the films will all have a touch of both char-
acteristics.

In modern days it is quite usual for the college and uni-
versity teams to have a motion picture camera taken along
with the team to every game. The films of the event then
go into the archives of the school and at the same time
individual films are made available for the members of
the teams and of the student body.

Exploration. — The greatest sporting event of recent
years, Lindberghs flight, was recorded upon film, and most
of you know how popular the prints were. Such events,
exploring voyages, big game hunting, all events which,

334 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

while really of a travel nature, have the element of daring
and exploration may properly be classed with the sporting
film, as they differ so widely from the usual travel film as
made by the casual tourist. Even the amateur ethnologist
can hardly class his work with the sports because, while
he does run a certain amount of risk, his work is under-
taken in a scientific rather than daring spirit.

Making the Exposure. — As for details of operation,
these are about the same as in other cases. During the
big game, when the spectator is somewhat removed from
the scene of action the long focus lens will prove invalu-
able. The difference between the field embraced by the
one inch and that embraced by the six inch lens is really
remarkable. In many other sporting events, of whatever
nature, the cameraman is often forced to take up a posi-
tion somewhat removed from the scene of action, and it
may be regarded as axiomatic that for all sports pictures,
with the exception of the posed actions for analytical pur-
poses, a lens of not less than three inches focal length
should be used. This gives us a three to four lens range,
that is ; three inch, three and three-quarter inch ; four inch
and six inch.

In preparing for such work, and when using such long
focus lenses, the range finder is invaluable also. By check-
ing the field of action, the cinematographer can locate any
portion of the possible field of action which will not be
properly covered by his lens set at infinity and can, when
necessary, establish a focal point for use in emergency.

When possible, secure a position where the sun will fall
obliquely over your own shoulder upon the subject. This
may not always be easy, but any trouble will be amply re-
paid, and finally make sure of the exposure, for there are
often extraneous circumstances surrounding the field of
action which will have a decided effect upon the exposure.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN
NATURE STUDY AND SCIENTIFIC FILMS

One of the surprising things about amateur cinematog-
raphy is the number of scientists, travellers, explorers,
naturalists and students who are numbered among its dev-
otees. Until recently the substandard camera has been
of but questionable value to this class of worker, but due
to certain recent developments, the substandard motion
picture camera is now available for practically every
known kind of scientific work.

The making of travel and exploration films is little
different from the usual travel practice except in those
cases where unusual conditions prevail. Where such con-
ditions are encountered it must be evident that the cinema-
tographer, whether amateur or professional will have to
formulate his own procedure. Rather than to try to set
forth individual instructions covering every such condition
possible, let us at once pass to the consideration of the
various classes of subjects which may be encountered.

Natural History. — One of the most widely used pur-
poses of the motion picture in science is its use in connec-
tion with natural history, and kindred branches of research.
In fact, in the case of mammals particularly, the realm
of the scientist and of the sportsman overlap, but while
the sportsman wants films of the sport type, the scientist
will want films which depict the animal in its most natural
poses and surroundings. Of course when the animal is of
the nocturnal variety, a source of light must be used and
this will make impossible a truly natural picture, but many
animals exhibit only curiosity in the presence of a blinding-
glare and for this reason magnesium flares often serve both
to illuminate the scene and to distract the attention of
the animal from the hiding place of the camera and its
operator.

335

336

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

337

For such work a supply of magnesium flares should be
carried as well as one or two telescopic stands for support-
ing these flares. They must be so placed that they may be
ignited without causing a disturbance. The flare must be
lighted at the time the exposure is desired because they

(Courtesy Amateur Movie Makers)
The sportsman will find it possible to secure many scenes like this one caught by
Walter D. Kerst, one of America's foremost amateur cinematographers.

burn only for a comparatively short time, thirty seconds,
one minute or two minutes according to the size used. This
is beyond doubt the finest, fully portable, light available
for motion picture work where electric current is not avail-
able.

In cases where such arrangements can be made, the
camera should be set in a place, supported by means of a
sturdy tripod, and carefully focussed upon a drinking hole,

338 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

burrow exit or other point where the animal may be ex-
pected to stop. With a little ingenuity a wire release may
be fitted to most cameras and this extended to thirty feet
or multiples thereof by means of the familiar wire release
extension and couplings.

Tie a wad of oil-soaked waste about the fuse of the flare,
and over this spread a small amount of gunpowder or
flash powder. In the powder bury the ends of two wires,
one grounded to the stand, the other running to the high
tension pole of an old fashioned auto spark coil which is
carried in a small case with the necessary dry cells. Pres-
sure upon a spring switch will ignite the powder, this will
ignite the waste and this in turn will set fire to the flare
wick. The structure may be so built that an appreciable
interval will result between the flash of the powder and the
ignition of the flare.

From a point of concealment the area illuminated is
watched. If the ignition of the flare does not scare the
wild actor, the release is pushed in and held for the neces-
sary time. It is true that this involves patience and many
discouragements, but one film will amply repay a hundred
trials.

(Courtesy Bell & Howell)
A small tripod head for amateur cameras which operates in a manner similar to the
professional heads is quite useful. The one shown, here is recommended for use with

the Filmo.

Remote Camera Control. — Daylight film hunting is a
far different proposition. Here the camera may be mounted
upon a strong "tree" support, a device which may be at-
tached to any convenient tree trunk or similar support. It
is hidden behind a "blind" made of a twig or two cut from
a bush and tacked in place on the tree trunk. Then from
a remote blind the camera may be operated with the wire
release as has been explained. For the operator the grass

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 339

suits used in duck hunting' will prove very serviceable.
This method is used when the camera may be focussed
upon a predetermined spot.

When the action may be expected to take place in any
one of a number of nearby spots, the only satisfactory re-
course is the telephoto lens. Reference to the table in the
Appendix will show that the field of the six inch lens at a
distance of 500 feet measures 32 feet in width by about 24
in height. This is not at all too large for the inclusion of
the larger animals. However in most cases the hunter
may approach to within one hundred yards by using care.
At this distance the field will be reduced to 14 x 19 feet.
In this case we will get an image of an elk, let us say,
whicli will fill the frame to the fullest extent compatible
with good composition while the same lens used upon an
ordinary camera would give us a direct print in which the
animal would be about one-fifth of an inch, or less, in
height. In "this the tremendous advantage of the motion
camera is exemplified, for by using the longer focus lenses
an image size is secured which is out of all proportion to
the usual relationship existing between the screen image
and the hand held image. The screen shows the appear-
ance whicli the eye would see at approximately fifty feet.

Bird Photography. — In the case of bird work the tele-
photo lens is an absolute necessity. It is usually difficult
to approach a wild bird closer than twenty-five feet, and
at this distance, even when using a six inch lens, the in-
cluded field will measure 1.4 x 1.9 feet. Using the ordinary
30 x 40 screen this will give us an enlargement slightly in
excess of 2% times life size which is about as small as can
be satisfactorily used in bird work. In this work the Tele-
star lens with a focal length of 9% inches will be of even
greater value than the six inch lens.

In cases where there is plenty of light there is oppor-
tunity for a most fascinating field of cinematography. We
have seen that the usual six inch lens as employed in mo-
tion photography has a speed of f 4.5. This is not due to
any inferiority of the larger apertures, but because a lens
of this focal length and of higher aperture would have a
prohibitive weight.

340 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

It is often possible to find nests with young birds in
them so situated that our meter will indicate an aperture
of f 8 or f 11. Assuming that such a nest is discovered and
the meter reading is f 8, we may safely set the diaphragm
at f 4.5 and proceed to make slow motion film of the mother
bird alighting upon a branch near the nest and feeding
the youngsters. There are few films which will rival this
in beauty and in interest.

This brings up another subject, one which will not be
attempted by many of my readers, but one which is un-
rivalled in intense interest and to the student of abstract
motion a truly beautiful subject. This subject is a serpent
striking at its prey. I trust that an explanation of this is
not due my naturalist readers, but for the casual reader
may the writer digress a moment? From his own exper-
ience he can say that the loathing felt toward the serpent
tribe may be quickly and easily overcome and that when
this is accomplished there are few wild creatures more fas-
cinating. With the exception of the very few poisonous
snakes, there is no living creature more harmless than the
serpent, regardless of the vicious attitude displayed in its
attempts at self defence. Even the much dreaded "Spread-
ing viper" (American) is capable of inflicting less harm
than a two weeks old kitten. Serpents are the most easily
tamed of all wild creatures although rarely becoming truly
domesticated. A snake, such as the large Indigo Snake
of the Southeast, when it becomes accustomed to being
handled will provide material for several reels of film.

Snake Photography. — Work with snakes involves two
distinct fields. Work with poisonous snakes should by all
means be left to the experienced herpetologist who knows
and respects the danger of the work. Such work should
be done with a lens of from four to six inch focus, allowing
a respectful distance to be maintained between reptile and
camera. Work with the harmless varieties may be done
with any suitable lens.

Slow Motion. — Slow motion work with such subjects
offers unlimited opportunities and innumerable difficul-
ties. Usually the serpent and its prey are confined together
in a cage, but this is inimical to good photography. In

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 341

the open the prey must be restrained or it will immediately
— and rapidly — leave the vicinity. The snake gives little
if any warning of its strike. There is usually not suffi-
cient notice to press the camera release. The film cannot
be run continuously, for the magazine holds only about
one minute of film at four times speed, and the snake may
lie motionless for four or five minutes and then strike like
lightning. As a rule it is easier to provoke the poisonous
reptiles into striking than the non-poisonous varieties.
However, the naturalist who makes a successful slow mo-
tion film of a huge diamond back rattler striking its prey
will have a film decidedly worth while.

The other members of this family, toads, frogs, turtles,
even the alligator present fewer difficulties, but almost as
much interest. There are thousands of poses and activi-
ties among these creatures which are not at all familiar
to the usual projector owner, and which should prove of
great interest.

Marine and Submarine Work. — Venturing into the
world of water we have the crabs and other creatures
which inhabit the beaches, the fish and other marine life
which will be found swarming in every pool. This work
should prove to be unusually fascinating in the clear coral
pools off the coast of Florida. Here exposures may be
made from above the water, but care must be taken to
avoid reflections which may not be immediately apparent
to the eye. In addition the panchromatic stock should be
used with a filter, as we have a tremendous reflection of
invisible ultra-violet rays from the surface of the water.
This gives rise to danger of haze-fog, and the visual image
is also rendered with a brilliance out of all proportion
to the photographic or actinic power of the light re-
flected from our subjects. In this work the meter read-
ing should be doubled or even trebled even after taking
into account the compensation for film and filter. For-
tunately the glass of our lenses admit only a small portion
of the lower waves of the ultra violet in any case, other-
wise such work would be almost impossible. With a
quartz lens a photograph will often be obtained under such
circumstances which shows a silvery water surface, fully

342 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

opaque, when the eye saw water of such transparency that
it was almost invisible.

If you care for comic films, set the camera up on the
beach some fifteen feet distant from a crab's hole. Within
your field a foot wide and nine inches high, using the six
inch lens, you may very probably see enacted a comedy
which will provide endless hours of amusement after a slap
stick has lost all of its mirth provoking power.

And now, before leaving this subject, let the writer con-
fess one of his greatest ambitions. Some years ago he had
the opportunity to photograph a huge sea turtle upon its
nest. He hopes in time to make a full hundred foot film
of a similar subject. If you, who read this, live where you
have the opportunity to do this, and so choose, may success
go with you, but the writer should greatly appreciate hear-
ing of the feat.

Insect Photography. — Leaving this realm, we descend
to that inhabited by the tiniest of visible creatures, the
insects. Here we find that our former apparatus is almost
worthless. What if we do photograph an ant's nest at a
distance of eight feet. Our field is a full six inches wide
and upon a four foot screen this gives us only eight times
enlargement. This helps but it is all too small. But what
if we approach until the nest is only two feet from the
lens? Then our field is only about one by one and one-
fourth inches. When we project this upon the screen
which measures forty-eight inches wide we have an en-
largement of somewhat more than thirty-eight diameters.
Then when we advance until the ant city is only eighteen
inches from our camera's eye, we find our field diminished
to about 0.6 x 0.8 inches, giving us a screen enlargement
of sixty diameters ! Sad to relate, this is about our limit,
but even so we find the lowly bronze laborer who in real
life measures possibly one-fourth of an inch in length mov-
ing about in reel life (forgive me!) with the huge bulk of
fifteen inches ! In order to use the six inch lens at such a
distance it is necessary to have a lens extension of nine
inches. This is not provided with the usual lens of this
focal length, but if Ave utilize the fullest extension of the
focussing mount of the lens itself, and then back up the

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 343

mount with the reflex focussing device, which we should
have to use anyway, we find that we have approximately
the desired extension.

It may be safely said that the entomologist would find
substandard cine work practically impossible without the
use of this invaluable accessory. With its aid we have
opened to our eyes a world of infinite interest and beauty,
a world which exists in our parks and in our back-yards.
The long focus lens and the reflex focusser place upon our
screen those beauties of nature which have heretofore been
limited to the vision of the microscopist.

Time Condensation. — The lover of nature is not, how-
ever, limited to the animate world, although it is true that
the animate world provides the easiest subjects for the cine-
matographer. The vegetable world, or at least the visible
portion thereof, is limited to motion so restrained in speed
that it is invisible. The only way in which this motion may
be shown to us is by time condensation which has already
been explained. Here we have the opportunity for a most
impressive contrast ! First let us show an army of ants
working feverishly. We approach nearer and show in
slow motion a small group of two or three laborers, their
movements rendered ponderous by slow motion. Then let
us cut to the tiny weed about which they clamber and
show this lowly plant putting forth leaves and expanding
before our eyes. By careful and painstaking work we may
switch from this time condensation work at any time and
jumping to slow motion show the ants working about this
self same weedlet, ants whose presence has escaped record
during the condensation due to their constant and rapid
motion !

There is no conceivable device which has the power to
bring to our attention the neglected and exquisite world
about our feet to the degree possible with the motion pic-
ture camera. The still camera, the microscope, the micro-
telescope all must give way to this magic box which cap-
tures and places before our eyes the ceaseless activity of
a world a yard- square, which has lain unseen beneath our
eyes for years !

Cinemicrography. — The plant world offers new subjects

344 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

for many of the most delicate and beautiful forms of
vegetation we have are carelessly brushed aside, lumped
under that noisome word "Mould." But even our power-
ful six inch objective will not fully penetrate the myster-
ies of these plant forms so delicate that a breath will
destroy thousands. Here we must have recourse to that
ever useful instrument the compound microscope. It is
well known that the microscope will not transmit actinic
light in any great quantity, particularly when the light is
split in a half silvered double prism. But if we use suffi-
cient light with a cooling solution between the light source
and the object we find that we have sufficient light to
make microscopic exposures. This is particularly true
when we consider that the usual subject has a motion so
slow that half speed or even stop motion is necessary to
show the proper appearance upon the screen. This is com-
paratively simple. However as we devour more and more
of the magic toadstool and go into worlds smaller and
smaller, we find that the rate of motion is increasing.
Blood corpuscles in the web of a frog's foot bump and
jostle each other in their journey, tiny particles in a solu-
tion dancing the age old dance of the Brownian movement
put to shame the champion Charleston or Black Bottom
dancer. These subjects require an illumination which
will permit at least half speed, and as the effective aper-
ture of the objective used on such tiny objects is smaller
than the one used with the moulds and yeasts Ave have to
increase the illumination in geometric proportion.

Finally when we get into the interesting world familiar
to the bacteriologist we may, if we are careful, make a
film showing a voracious leucocyte or white blood cor-
puscle, devouring a group of rapidly multiplying bacteria !
Here again we have a comparatively slow motion and we
may use stop motion at the rate of one exposure per second
or even slower. The combination of microscope and mo-
tion camera is a treasure house in itself, for in your two
hands you may hold material to keep you occupied for
years without end.

But how are these two instruments to be joined?
Through the agency of a little device known as the "Micro-

#N.

, . *«,

•^^^^'■■•■f m ■■■■■ '---^ -

£ . .

tmmmS

'LI

{Courtesy Amateur Movie Makers)

Surgeons have succeeded in making motion picture films of the interior of the stomach
of living subjects by using the device shown in this illustration.

345

346

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

phot." This consists of a tube which slips into the tube
of the standard microscope. It supports a split prism in
a box. Most of the light is reflected by this prism through
a second tube joined to the first at right angles. This
leads to the camera where a suitable joint is provided. A
smaller amount of light passes through the prism to the
top of the tube where through the conventional ocular the
microscopic field may be viewed. The apparatus is not
one to be used carelessly, but the scientist will find that it
serves its purposes admirably, and will prove of incalcu-
lable value to him. This device was designed as a com-
panion to the Zeiss-Ikon Kinamo standard gauge motion
picture camera, but it may be readily adapted to the usual
substandard camera which has removable lenses.

(Courtesy Amateur Movie Makers)
Surgical operations may be faithfully recorded by means of the amateur movie camera.

So on through the world of science. We find the sur-
geon using the camera to record unusual operations, all
danger of sepsis eliminated by using the long focus lens
and operating from a distance, the archaeologist records

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 347

his finds as they lay in the enshrouding clay of centuries,
the ethnologist records the habits and customs of strange
people while his companion geologist makes use of the
motion camera to secure continuous panoramas of strange
formations.

The still camera has served the naturalist and scientist
through years and it will remain a useful and loyal ser-
vant, yet its greatest achievements can hardly compare
with the routive service given to science by the magic,
moving ribbon of silvered celluloid.

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

THE AMATEUR PRODUCTION COMPANY

We have briefly considered a few of the many phases
of substandard motion picture photography, and now we
come to that field which has been and always will be, per-
haps, the focus of interest for the usual camera owner —
the production of photo-plays. This is a very natural de-
sire and one which should be encouraged rather than other-
wise. Even if a photo-play of unusual merit is never pro-
duced the training in presenting the scenes of your films
in logical sequence, properly titled, properly edited and
properly acted will add incalculably to the value of your
record shots.

Any motion picture should be carefully made. The
setting, i.e., the "background" should be carefully se-
lected, the properties used should be appropriate (as they
usually are in record work), the costumes should not be
incongruous, the actors should be letter perfect, the photog-
raphy flawless. The developed film should be carefully
edited and the titles should be composed, drawn and
photographed with every attention to detail. All this is
true of any film, but more particularly of the dramatic
film. In the photo-play we have all of these elements with
the added one of pantomime.

This is not intended to discourage you, but to impress
upon you the fact that a fully satisfactory and successful
result will be secured only if you are willing to put forth
the effort and the care which would be given to any other
creative work. Above all else, the actors must take the
work seriously. Avoid the self-conscious "funny-man"
who is driven, by a sense of inferiority, into being "the
life of the party," burlesquing and clowning. Amateur pro-
duction is not a joke, but it may be made the source of

348

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

349

infinite pleasure if undertaken in the proper spirit.
Naturally, dramatic production will usually necessi-
tate the cooperation of a number of individuals. It fol-

(Conrtesy Amateur Movie Makers)
An amateur club of Newark are starting out in the right way making high class photo
dramas which will compare favorably with professional production.

lows that the first step will be to organize a club for the
purpose of producing amateur films.

It can be understood that harmony in the work and
congeniality of the members is of primary importance. If

350 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

you know of a group who habitually associate with one
another, whose tastes are similar and who care for such
workj that group is the logical basis upon which to found
the club. Remember that this producing company is a
group of people who expect to experiment more or less,
with a new form of art. There can be no question of the
routine and discipline which exist in the usual studio.
Suggestions will be in order from any member of the
group, but if anything is to be done, a responsible head
must be appointed who shall have the power to decide any
question which arises concerning technique. This head
will naturally be the owner of the apparatus and the
organizer of the club.

This group should be assembled and the purpose of the
club explained carefully so that any who so wish may
enter or remain outside. The fact must be emphasized
that success will result only from enthusiasm, hard work,
and unfailing interest. Each member of the group must
be willing to study the work in order to arrive at an under-
standing of the technique involved. And each must be
ready to give his fullest aid in every possible way. This
being understood, there is no reason why the venture
should not be a success. In case the individuals compris-
ing this group are more ambitious than usual, there is no
reason whatever why a certain, specific time should not
be set aside for the experimental study of the aesthetics
of motion.

When the club has been organized it would be advis-
able to secure affiliation with the Amateur Cinema League
with headquarters in New York City. This is an organiza-
tion for the advancement of amateur cinematography and
is not a commercial organization in any sense.

The Studio. — For the production of the motion drama,
some kind of studio will be necessary. In case operations
have to be conducted along modest lines, an ordinary sized
room will be sufficient for the stage, with two or three
alcoves or closets for properties and sets. In fact, in the
city a "studio apartment" and in smaller towns the upper
story of a garage or a finished attic will serve admirably
for this work.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 351

The lighting equipment may be of the types of lamps
already described, the double range lamps being very good
for this work, but before connecting them a 100 to 125
ampere power line should be installed. This will take
care of five or six of the 20 ampere lamps without any
danger, and six of these lamps should be ample for
all purposes. In addition to the usual arcs, one spot
lamp and one or two hand lamps should be used.
This will complete the lighting equipment. A twenty
or thirty foot stage cable with jack box will be very con-
venient.

If there is a member of the group who understands
architecture, even the simplest phases of that art, the
studio can be transformed into a setting, various corners
being treated in such a manner that anything from draw-
ing room to dive can be represented. When painted sets
are used, the foundation can be easily made of light wall
board nailed to light wooden frames. Fantastic sets may
be made with chalk upon newspaper stock and hung from
the ceiling like theatrical drops. Futuristic properties
may be made from wall board.

Properties. — Conventional properties may be borrowed
from the homes of the members, while some stock pieces
may be made to serve a variety of purposes. A plain
table of the type which has two slab legs, one at each end
may be a tavern table of the eighteenth century, the castle
board in the fourteenth century, the chieftain's executive
desk in the dawn of the Christian era, a corporation table
in New Amsterdam or a table in a far western shack. By
avoiding tell-tale identifying marks of period furniture,
and using indeterminate styles, the larger pieces may be
made to serve almost any purpose. In such cases the
time is identified by smaller and more easily made prop-
erties such as costume, the best of all, and its accessories
such as arms, jewels and so forth.

The usual amateur will no doubt turn to the conven-
tional drama of modern times which requires nothing
elaborate in the way of costumes, sets or properties. It
should be remarked, however, that the production of
"Period" dramas will be intensely interesting to the stu-

352 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING"

dent of history as well as being of considerable positive
value.

The exact details of this work will of course be worked
out by each group in a manner which will best suit its
own requirements. The primary essentials are then : A
place in which to work, a source of light and suitable
background and accessories to lend the proper atmosphere
to the scenes.

The Cast. — In the usual photo-drama there are two
leads, male and female, two minor leads, male and female,
a heavy or villain, the comedy either male, female or both
and character actors, male and female. In many instances
two or more of these roles will be played by the same in-
dividual, according to the demands of the scenario in hand.

There is nothing so very difficult in producing an
amateur photo-play. The only thing necessary is a full
understanding of the character, purpose and meaning of
drama. There is entirely too much of the idea that dramas
are completely artificial. Nothing could be farther from
the truth than this. Anyone of ordinary intelligence can
make creditable amateur photo-plays and with proper ap-
plication and devotion to the work can soon make un-
usually good ones. Home plays are far more simple than
the professional type, naturally the home technique is far
simpler than the professional. You see, here is the whole
story in a nut-shell

Drama. — Life is drama. In fact Life is the one original
drama which, due to the limitations of time and space can
never be shown in its entirety upon any stage or screen,
yet which has had the longest run of any production ever
staged. Our drama, as we think of it, is built by eliminat-
ing from the original, all non-essential detail, leaving only
the points of greatest interest and those which have a
direct bearing upon the theme which we are trying to
develop. These points are arranged in progressive suc-
cession, which might be represented as a flight of steps,
in which each step leads to another of slightly more in-
terest and a logical successor. This process leads us
eventually to the point of greatest interest, the literary
climax of our story. Then, instead of staying there or

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 353

coming back down, we virtually "toboggan" down to the
level from which we started, and the shorter the period be-
tween the climax and the end of the film, the better the
technique. This of course is only true when the story
is completed and the return curve allowed to drop to its
original level. When this is done, we have drama. Simple,
isn't it? Just as simple — and as complex — as life.

Drama does not mean melodrama by any means. I
once saw an almost perfect drama staged in a hencoop.
Two baby chicks, one white and one black were quite
chummy. Blackie found a worm and grabbed it ; Whitey
saw it too and also grabbed — the other end. Friendship
became rivalry. They tugged and pulled and as usual
gave little heed to the agony of the third party. The con-
flict raged, the favor being at times with one and at times
with the other. Finally Blackie gave a vicious tug, Whitey
lost his balance and opened his bill to squeak and Blackie
walked off with his prize after having fought for it. Could
any incident be more simple? With no intention of ab-
surdity, such an incident has the elements of pure drama.
Let us then remember that drama is not a high art under-
stood only by the few, but it is rather a cross section lifted
from life and polished up a bit so that it may be distin-
guished from the humdrum current which goes to make
up the stream of life.

We have said that drama is not a fine art. This is true
for drama which exists — but the creation of an imaginary
drama is one of the highest of the arts, so the home movie
maker will realize that any ventures into the realm of
pure drama must be experimental. Let us call this, the
usual dramatic art, creative dramatic art or merely crea-
tive drama. On the other hand it is quite simple to stand
ready with the camera and shoot the more pleasing bits
of any family incident, or even to recall past events and
to re-enact them for the camera. Such a process we shall
call selective dramatization. In this case we are making a
film from incidents which are founded upon actual occur-
rences within our own experience. This is easy insofar
as the production of a satisfactory home film is concerned,
but with experience you will achieve results which are

354 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

better and better until you secure, almost unconsciously
a knowledge of the drama which will enable you to start
into creative dramatic work.

Technique. — There is no motion photography in which
elementary drama can be totally ignored. Even straight
record work requires the correct chronological order ; intro-
duction, development of the "story" and the denouement.
In order to make this easier, and to enable the beginner
to secure the best possible results with his movie camera,
this book has been written. It is not a record of the
writer's experience alone, but rather that summing up of
the experience of the leaders in motion photography which
has been handed down to each of us in turn, lumped under
the name, "Technique." Technique is not a complex
mystery. Kegard it as the simplest possible statement of
the solutions of problems which have confronted motion
picture photographers and producers from the first, and
you will understand that amateur technique, founded upon
professional technique, but greatly simplified, is the most
valuable aid you could find. Technique, under its familiar
name "How-to-do-it," is a friend, not an enemy.

Amateur technique must be more flexible than that of
the professional. It must meet a wider variety of demands.
Many amateurs will make only pure record films. In this
work the principal problem is that of the elimination of
all non-essential detail, in case dramatization is purely
selective. Starting at this point we find that we have a
gradually changing field, the creative work creeping in
little by little through the addition of details for better
effect. We find this creative work increasing until finally
we have a group of amateurs whose work is almost purely
creative, who are following in motion pictures the path
hewn by the Little Theatre Movement. This last group
will very probably lead the professional to new artistic
triumphs. However, realizing that the amateur field con-
tains two diametrically opposed groups, and every con-
ceivable combination of those groups, we must each of
us make allowance for the prejudices of others who are
not in our own group, and it is to be hoped that you will
also make allowances for the writer who is trying to give

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 355

in a volume of such small size, an outline of amateur
technique which may be of greater or less value to you all.
The first meeting of the club should be given over to a
discussion of the work, of the production responsibilities
each member can assume, such as properties, set dressing,
make-up, costumes, and so forth. The general type of
scenarios to be produced can also be discussed at this
meeting and all preliminary work settled so that at the
second meeting, the actual work of production may be
started. As the start of any motion picture production
is the scenario, this should be the subject of the second
meeting of the club. And do not forget that whether your
"Club" consists only of your own family or of twenty or
more people, these facts are of equal importance.

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

THE SCENARIO

The first step in the making of any motion picture is a
visualization of the principal action of that picture. The
scenario is the record of that visualization.

A scenario is a literary form distinct from all others.
It is a story of action only. In it the abstract is kept to
a minimum and when it appears at all is capable of being
clearly interpreted by facial expression, gesture or other
action. Action does not necessarily mean extensive ac-
tion. A twitch of a facial muscle which gives definite ex-
pression to the face is truly "action." Therefore we have
in the scenario a story which can be faithfully inter-
preted by the actors through the medium of the physical
body.

The true scenario need not be used by the amateur as
he can skip this step and go directly into the "Continuity"
or "Script." This is the chassis of the scenario, a mere re-
lation, scene by scene of the action required, and it is de-
cidedly not a literary form. Many of the scenarios pre-
sented to amateurs have been in the form of a combina-
tion scenario-continuity. The continuity itself contains
a wealth of information in a very brief space.

The Continuity. — In the case of the ordinary scene,
the continuity indicates the scene number, interior or ex-
terior, type of shot, locale, action and footage. Titles are
indicated as captions or spoken titles, numbered, the word-
ing given and footage. Inserts are given a scene number,
a description of the subjects and the footage. Cut-backs
are handled as regular scenes. It will be noticed that the
scenario itself is not divided into scenes, it does not in-
dicate footage, detailed business is not introduced and
spoken titles are introduced in the usual manner by use

356

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 357

of quotes. In short the scenario is a readable story, while
the continuity is little more than a "blue-print" for the
Director's guidance. In case the action is more complex
than usual, it might be well to write the scenario. This
gives continuity of thought and action, and from this pre-
pare the continuity or "Script." Some directors have
each scene, title etc., written on a single sheet of paper,
and in this form these sheets are usually called the "Slats."
This makes the continuity bulky and has no real conven-
ience, over the more usual form.

The home movie has come to stay. There will probably
never be a pastime, a sport or a hobby which will attain
the popularity which the movies have gained recently.
There is a very sound reason for this. The movies pro-
vide the opportunity for the creative instinct, they are
independent of external circumstances, they are personal
in character and have a permanent, ever increasing value.
Let us compare the movies with radio, which ranks next
to them in popularity. The radio only transmits to us
the creations of others, our part in radio is passive. The
radio is impersonal, it appeals to us through our sense of
hearing, and it has only. a passing interest. A composi-
tion is played, we hear it and it is gone ! With the movies
our part is active, we create the film according to our
own ideas and ability. The films which we produce are
personal, they appeal to us through the medium of our
principal sense, sight, and they are permanent, being a
record of passing action which is captured, recorded and
made available for reproduction at any future time. In
fact, with the passage of time, the value of our films grows
in geometric proportion. We have not yet had the pos-
sibility before us for a sufficient length of time to appre-
ciate this last point, but imagine how you would value
a movie of your parent's wedding, of your mother's child-
hood, or of father's school days. There is then a value in
the amateur movie which far outweighs its value as a
pastime. In fact, so tremendous is this value that as a
nation we are coming to realize that no family can afford
to be without a good motion picture camera, especially
now that the 16 millimeter equipment has been so per-

358 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

fected and so simplified that it may be operated by anyone
with entire success.

Success in amateur movie work is not solely a matter
of securing films which are good from a photographic
standpoint. If that were the case there would be but
little reason for writing this book. The manufacturers
have gone to great pains to prepare books of instructions
for their cameras which make the actual operation very
easily understood, and very often indeed the beginner
secures a photographically good film at his first attempt.

There are certain aesthetic considerations which enter
into the problems of film production, whether amateur or
professional. These considerations make the difference
between the uninteresting film and the interesting one.
The problem involved with each one has been individually
studied by the professional producers and we have their
solutions ready at hand to be used for the betterment of
our own personal movies. But before we can make the
best use of the experience of the professionals, we must
adapt their solutions of these problems to our own varia-
tions of such problems, which usually necessitates a
change, not in the basic practice, but in the application
of the general principle involved. For example, the. pro-
fessional director might plan on using twenty broadsides,
a half dozen sun arcs, twenty Cooper-Hewitt banks and a
few scattered 150 amp spots. The amateur, on the other
hand is usually limited to two or three amateur twin-arcs
or Cameralites with a small spot if he is lucky. It is ob-
vious that the amateur must cut down his cast, his stage
area and his action to conform to the covering power of
his lighting equipment, yet both directors may interpret
the same emotion upon the screen. The professional di-
rector knows that to please the public at large he must use
space, people and props. He must spend money and let
the audience know that he is doing so, while the amateur
at his best, attempts only one thing, to achieve his desired
dramatic effect.

The amateur movie maker is not a member of a uniform
class. Some amateurs only want to make living records
of some portions of their lives, but they want these records

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 359

to be truthful; others want to make for their own satis-
faction motion picture dramas untrammelled by the con-
ventions and restrictions which keep the theatrical motion
picture in its present level; and between these two a
vast throng who occupy every conceivable step in the in-
termediate space. Yet we cannot say that any one division
is right and all the others are wrong. The movies give us
a deep and permanent pleasure, they are a vital power in
our lives, and in making life better, more enjoyable, they
fulfil their destiny.

It is not the purpose of this book to try to win any
amateur from his present aims and methods, but only to
enable him to more quickly and more perfectly attain the
goal which he has already set himself. If it enables the
family historian to make better record films, or if it helps
the cinema dramatist to make more artistic films, it shall
have served its purpose. For this reason, it is necessary
to say that there are many things mentioned which the
beginner can for the present ignore, but which become vital
as more ambitious work is attempted. Usually, this fact
is mentioned in the text, but a little judicious thought will
serve to indicate whether any given procedure is neces-
sary in filming the baby in the backyard, or whether it
is meant only for the use of the Little Cinema Club in
their apartment-studio.

Development of the Scenario. — But, to return to the
scenario. In writing this scenario or continuity, the first
step is to write the entire story in a paragraph Let us
consider "When Billy Started to School."

Billy, the baby of the family has reached the age when
it is necessary for him to start to school. In preparing
for this momentous event he has many surprising and
amusing adventures.

This gives us a basis, a mass of color without detail.
The second step is to break this paragraph into component
bits, giving an idea of the action.

Billy tells Daddy of the coming event. He has to hurry
to get ready. The other children quietly get ready for
school. Billy is late. He is called and Gome's out with an
armful of story books, and surrenders them to mother

360 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

only after considerable resistance. Billy and his brother
Eob start hurrying down the sidewalk to school, while
mother turns and re-enters the house.

Here we have a photo-play reduced to almost its simplest
elements, yet it is one which can be easily adapted to any
home in which there are children almost ready for their
first day in school. With an idea of the component parts,
our next step is to prepare the continuity in detail as has
been presented to us in Miss Standing's delightful little
family scenario, "When Billy Started to School." In
order to present a concrete example of the amateur
scenario at its best, we take pleasure in including in this
chapter two complete amateur scenarios prepared through
the courtesy of Miss Vera Standing, the well known writer
of amateur scenarios.

THE DARK MAN IN HER LIFE
By Vera Standing

Scene 1 — Exterior. Country Road. Fairly Long Shot.

A few gypsies are hanging around a tent or two set
up on the edge of a field, with woods in the background.
A bunch of young people in camping clothes are in front
of one tent.
Scene 2 — Exterior. Country Road. Medium Shot.

Some of the boys and girls, all of high school age, are
trying to push Betty toward the door of the tent. One
girl says,
Spoken Title 1 — Go on, Betty, we've all been in, it's
your turn now.
She laughs and struggles, but finally goes in the tent.
Scene 3 — Interior. Gypsy Tent. Semi-closeup.

Betty peeps into the tent, around a curtain hanging
inside the door itself.
Scene 4 — Interior. Gypsy Tent. Medium Shot.

A gypsy woman, seated on a pile of rugs, motions to
Betty to come forward. Betty crouches down in front
of her and holds out her hand.
Scene 5 — Exterior. Country Road. Medium Shot.

Rufe, aged about fourteen, one of the bunch, comes
running around to the back of the tent and throws
himself on the ground as close to the lower edge of the
tent as possible, to hear what is said inside. He tries
to lift the cloth a bit with his hand.
Scene 6 — Interior. Gypsy Tent. Semi-closeup.

The gypsy studies Betty's palm carefully from all
angles, talking rapidly at the same time. Betty leans
eagerly forward.
Scene 7 — Exterior. Country Road. Fairly Long Shot.
A young man comes along, driving a very shabby
flivver. The bunch see him and rush forward. He stops
the car.

361

362 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Scene 8 — Exterior. Country Road. Medium Shot.

Everybody crowds around to say hello to the new-
comer, who has very dark hair. One boy asks,
Spoken Title 2 — Hey, Don, when did you get here?
Don begins to explain.
Scene 9 — Exterior. Country Road. Semi-closeup.

Rufe is listening behind the tent, and giggling to
himself.
Scene 10 — Interior. Gypsy Tent. Semi-closeup.
The gypsy is saying to Betty,
Spoken Title 3 — The next dark man you meet will be
very important in your life.
Betty laughs and asks some more questions.
Scene 11 — Exterior. Country Road. Medium Shot.

Rufe runs to the others, who are still around the
flivver, and tells them what the gypsy is telling Betty.
Don asks,
Spoken Title 4 — Who is Betty? I don't know her.

One of the girls starts telling him who Betty is. Then
a boy grabs Don by the arm and exclaims,
Spoken Title 5 — Oh, boy, you're it!

Don wants to know what kind of an "it" he is, and
the boy slaps him on the back and cries out,
Spoken Title 6 — Why, the next dark man in her life!
All the rest go into a fit of laughing, and beg Don to
play up to Betty. The boy who had the big idea shows
Don just how to express a sudden mad crush for Betty.
Don thinks it will be a scream and agrees. He gets out
of the car.
Scene 12 — Interior. Gypsy Tent. Medium Shot.

The gypsy finishes her fortune telling. Betty rises,
puts a coin in the gypsy's hand, and goes to the door.
Scene 13 — Exterior. Country Road. Medium Shot.

One girl turns and exclaims that there is Betty now.

They all go out of the scene in her direction.

Scene 14— Exterior. Country Road. Fairly Long Shot.

The bunch run to Betty, who is just outside the tent,

and hustle her toward Don, who is approaching slowly.

Scene 15— Exterior. Country Road. Medium Shot.

Don is introduced to Betty, who greets him cordially,
but is mystified by the giggling and nudging around
her.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 363

Scene 16 — Exterior. Country Road. Semi-closeup.

Don and Betty smile at each other, with the others
crowding around.
Scene 17 — Exterior. Country Road. Closeup.
Don and Betty only, smiling at each other.
Scene 18 — Exterior. Country Road. Semi-closeup.

One of the fellows, getting impatient, pokes Don in
the ribs, and is astonished when Don snaps at him to
cut it out. The boy raises his eyebrows and whispers to
his neighbor, who laughs.
Scene 19. — Exterior. Country Road. Medium Shot.

Betty asks the rest if it isn't time to go on. They all
feel rather let down, and whisper a bit together, then
start down the road by twos and threes, Betty among
them.
Scene 20 — Exterior. Country Road. Long Shot.

The bunch are straggling along the road, and Don
gets into his car and drives after them. He invites
Betty into the car, and she accepts.
Scene 21 — Exterior. Country Road. Medium Shot.

Don and Betty pass a group on foot. The walkers
look at each other and laugh.
Scene 22 — Exterior. Country Road. Camera Running
Along with and a Little Ahead of the Car.
Medium Shot.

Betty keeps her eyes straight ahead, and does not
say a word. Don looks at her, looks ahead, looks at her
again. Finally Betty says,
Spoken Title 7 — Will you do me a great favor?

Don exclaims eagerly that he certainly will, and she
continues,
Spoken Title 8 — Will you please bleach your hair,

Don looks stunned, then the point dawns on him, and
they both laugh uproariously. Don asks,
Spoken Title 9 — Is that all you have against me?
Betty nods, giggles, and sits a bit closer to him.
Scene 23 — Exterior. Country Road. Camera on Back of
Car. Semi-closeup.

The back of Don's and Betty's heads, quite close to-
gether, as they drive along.

WHEN BILLY STARTED SCHOOL
By Vera Standing

Scene 1 — Interior. Dining Room. Table in the Fore-
ground and Door to One Side of the Room. Medium
Shot.

Daddy and Beth and Rob are already at breakfast.
Daddy is reading the paper while he eats. Billy, aged
six, comes running in and stops beside Daddy, while
Mother follows after and sits down at her place.
Daddy drops his paper as Billy reaches up to him.
(3-1/3 ft.-8 ft.)
Scene 2 — Interior. Dining Room. Camera on Same Side
of Table as Characters. Semi-closeup.

Daddy bends toward Billy as the latter says excitedly,
Spoken Title 1 — Daddy, I'm going to start school to-day.
(2-5)

Daddy pretends to be immensely surprised, and care-
fully measures Billy to see if he is big enough. Then
he gives Billy a big hug. Mother comes partly into the
scene and draws Billy gently toward his chair, between
his parents. (5-12)
Scene 3 — Interior. Dining Room. Camera Behind and
a Little to One Side of Characters. Medium Shot.
Mother ties on Billy's napkin and points to the clock
on the opposite wall. (2-5)
Scene 4 — Interior. Dining Room. Clock. Closeup.

The hands of the clock point to eighty-thirty. (2-5)
Scene 5 — Interior. Dining Room. Table in the Fore-
ground. Medium Shot.

Beth and Rob are arguing amiably and eating. Billy
stops in the middle of a mouthful of cereal to ask a
question, but Mother keeps him at his meal. Daddy
gets up from the table and kisses Beth and Rob good-
by. As he turns to Billy, the latter climbs up on his
chair. Daddy puts his arms around him and says,

364

AMATEUE MOVIE MAKING 365

Spoken Title 2 — Be sure to tell me what you did in
school, when I get home to-night! (5-121/2 )

Billy says, oh, yes, he surely will, and Daddy smiles at
Mother over Billy's shoulder. Then he and Billy hug
each other hard, and Daddy goes out, while Billy climbs
down again. Mother tells the three children to go and
get ready, and they all leave the room. (10-25)
Scene 6 — Exterior. Front Yard. Front Porch in the
Rear. Long Shot.

Mrs. White and her little girl Julie walk up the path
into the scene. Mother comes out to greet them.
(31/2-8)
Scene 7— Exterior. Front Porch. House Door in the
Scene. Medium Shot.

Mother is talking to Mrs. White. Beth and Rob come
out, ready for school. Beth and Julie compare pencil
boxes, and Rob tells Mother that Billy isn't ready.
Mother calls through the screen door to Billy, who
comes out a moment later, with his cap on, and with his
arms so full of books he can hardly hold them. (5-12)

Scene 8 — Exterior. Front Porch. Different Angle.
Semi-closeup.

Mother is bending over, full of laughter, as Billy
hangs on to this bunch of his story books and says,
Spoken Title 3 — I guess these will have to do me for to-
day. (4-6)

Mother is simply convulsed as she takes two books
from Billy and looks at them. (2i/2-6)
Scene 9 — Exterior. Front Porch. Closeup.

Mother's hands hold two books with their titles
plainly visible. ("Peter Rabbit" or other stories usu-
ally read to little boys.) (2-5)
Scene 10 — Exterior. Front Porch. Steps and Part of
Path in Scene. Medium Shot.

Mother induces Billy to give her all the books. Mrs.
White looks at her wrist watch and says the children
must hurry. Beth and Julie run down the steps and
out of the scene. Mother kisses Billy and tells him to
take Rob's hand. Billy hangs back, but Rob says, "Aw,
come on, kid," so they go down the steps hand in hand,
with Mother and Mrs. White behind them. (6-15)

366 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Scene 11 — Exterior. Street. Front of House and Side-
walk Leading Out of the Scene into the Distance.
Long Shot.

Beth and Julie are half-way down the block. Other
children come out of a house and join them. Rob and
Billy are coming at the same time down the path from
the house, while Mother and Mrs. White stop a little
below the front steps. Billy turns as he reaches the
sidewalk, and darts back to Mother. (3V2-8)

Scene 12 — Exterior. Front Yard. Medium Shot.

Mother holds out her arms as Billy runs into them
and throws his arms around her neck. He looks back
at Rob and shakes his head, but Mother pushes him
from her and reassures him. Then she takes him by
the hand and leads him to Rob. (5-12)

Scene 13 — Exterior. Street. Sidewalk Receding at an
Angle. Semi-closeup.

Mother closes Rob's hand tightly over Billy's, and
gives them both a push, telling them to hurry up, or
they'll be late. (31/2-8)

Scene 14 — Exterior. Street, a Little Farther Up.
Medium Shot.

Billy and Rob come along the sidewalk toward the
camera. Billy is trotting to keep up with Rob. He
has lost all his fear, and is talking excitedly, while Rob
nods and grins. (4-10)

Scene 15 — Exterior. Street. Long Shot.

Mother and Mrs. White are standing on the sidewalk
watching the children. As the two boys reach the cor-
ner, in the distance, Billy turns and waves his hand.
Mother waves frantically back. (2V&-6)

Scene 16 — Exterior. Street. Medium Shot.

Mother is waving to Billy, who is not in the scene.
(2-5)

Scene 17 — Exterior. Street. The Children as Mother
Sees Them. Long Shot.

Billy stops waving as Rob hurries him around the
corner and out of sight. (2-5)

Scene 18 — Exterior. Street. Medium Shot.

Mother winks a tear out of her eye and smiles at
Mrs. White. She smiles back and links her arm into
Mother's. They turn and walk up the path toward the
house. (4-10)

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 367

Scene 19 — Exterior. Another Street. School House
in the Distance. Long Shot.

Billy and Rob walk into the scene and hurry toward
the school. Other children are running into the build-
ing. Rob points out the school house to Billy and they
both begin to run. They finally reach the building
when all the other children have disappeared, and they
go in too. (8-20)

Note — The first of the two figures in parentheses are
estimated footage for 16 mm. film, the second, for 35 mm.
film. The total footage for 16 mm. film is 76 feet of scenes
and 11 feet of titles, or 87 feet in all. For 35 mm., stand-
ard, film, it is 185 feet for scenes and 21 for titles, or 206
in all. Either film will run about three and one-half min-
utes on the screen.

A little study of these two excellent examples of the
scenario as adapted to home production will show that
their construction is not difficult. It is true that there is
not much of melodramatic character in these two examples,
but melodrama is a thing apart, and not one which is to
be recommended. Advanced drama is quite admirable,
and a goal toward which to strive. To that end, scenarios
similar to those just given will be prepared, but more
elaborate.

The scenario presents in clear, concise form a sequence
of related scenes which serve to carry forward a theme
to its culmination. Just what does that mean? "Clear
and concise form." The ideas presented must be capable
of being interpreted by physical means which can be re-
corded by the camera. The intent of the action must be
unmistakable. All superfluous details must be suppressed
or removed. "A sequence of related action." Each scene
must have some essential bearing upon the development
of the theme or story, and such scenes are presented in
such order that the action of one scene logically succeeds
the action of the preceding scene. There is an exception
to this when in a change of sequence, the sequence logically
succeeds some preceding sequence. "Which serve to
carry * * * to its culmination. " The action is introduced
at some predetermined point. From that point the in-

368 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

terest must increase until we arrive at the crisis or the
dramatic denouement toward which all of the action has
led us.

The Sequence. — We often have to carry forward two
separate and distinct groups of action. In this case that
group of scenes which depicts the uninterrupted action of
a single group is termed a sequence. Thus we show a
sequence dealing with group one, then a second sequence,
whose time of occurrence may have been coincident with
that of the first sequence, but which shows us group two.
As a sequence may contain any number of scenes from one
upward, it is evident that we should have some indication
of sequence change. This is provided by the fade or the
iris. We iris in on a sequence and iris out at the close of
that sequence. It is immutable law that a fade out or iris
out must be followed by the fade in or iris in. If a title
is inserted between sequences this still holds true, the
title is circled in and out and the following first scene
of a sequence is opened by the iris in. Such fades and
irises must be indicated in the scenario.

Plot Development. — There are certain conventions
which, while not inflexible, have proven to be very
efficacious in producing the desired effect.

The first two or three scenes should introduce one or
more principal characters, and with the introductory title
inform the audience what the story is about. This is one
of the more difficult if not the most difficult part of scenario
preparation. We have a whirr, a flash, and a story starts
upon the screen. The spectators are not aware of the
subject, yet they must be made to feel perfectly familiar
with the story from the first sequence. The introductory
title should not be lengthy and tiresome, but should tell
volumes in a few words. The better class of professional
feature pictures offers excellent examples of this. Often
the first two or three or even more scenes have no direct
connection with the story. They could be omitted with-
out detriment to the development of the plot, but they
serve to introduce the characters and the theme.

One valuable artifice is suspense. For some reason it is
apparently the goal of the amateur scenarist to tell the

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 369

whole story in the first sequence and to then return and
go into detail. This is to be avoided. Such practice may
be very well in newspaper work where the whole story
is told in the first paragraph and later elaborated, but
in motion picture production such a course is ruinous.

Keep to the gradual development of the story. If you
find that the denouement is going to be disclosed before
the proper time, cut the sequence, leave the audience hang-
ing in mid-air, so to speak, and cut to another sequence.
Suppress the critical denouement until the time arrives
for the logical inclusion of the crisis.

Do not waste film on trivial detail. Make each scene
mean something! If a scene can be eliminated without
injuring the story — eliminate it! Its presence is worse
than its absence. However, do not mistake the value of
the introduction of slight but significant details which
take place coincidently with a major scene. The modern
director makes use of this trick in introducing a dog which
runs to meet its master returning after a long absence,
and similar "human interest" details which are common
in modern feature pictures.

Following the crisis we have the "Finale." This has
no true place in the development of the plot. This develop-
ment reaches its culmination in the crisis, but by the time
the crisis has been reached in a good photo-play the spec-
tators are in a condition of extreme mental tension, which
is only partially relieved by the critical point of the de-
velopment of the plot. It is advisable to present a scene,
or sequence following the crisis which presents in a gen-
eralized way the thought embodied in the concluding sen-
tence of so many of our childhood fairy tales, "And so
they were married and lived happily ever after."

This finale serves to relieve the tension induced by the
dramatic events of the photo-play. Remember that in this
photo-drama we have presented in ten minutes or so the
dramatic elements which ordinarily are experienced in
real life only in a much longer period. We have selected
the highlights of a life story and have strung them upon
a thread of continuity like a string of brilliants. They
present drama in highly condensed form. Therefore the

370 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

reaction of the individual, although he is only a spectator,
is quite often as acute as though he were an actor in a
similar drama in real life. Do not neglect, then, the very
necessary finale.

There you have in a half dozen paragraphs the science
of scenario building, just as taught in extended courses
of instruction. Naturally we do not state that the reading
of these paragraphs will give you the same grasp of the
subject as would such a course, nor may you expect this
information to enable you to sell hundred-thousand dollar
scenarios to the big producers — but seriously these points
are the highlights of the subject which, it is hoped, will
enable you to prepare simple home continuities.

Scenario Construction. — As to the actual construction,
we find that the scenario, the working scenario or con-
tinuity, is composed of a series of paragraphs, each of
which presents one scene in full. In some scenes we find
titles, flash-backs and inserts included but broadly speak-
ing there is one paragraph to each scene. This paragraph
is built in a specific manner, each writer having his own
style, but adhering strictly to that style, so that in produc-
tion the information will be given in a standardized se-
quence, which will do much to avoid confusion in pro-
duction.

Thus in the scenarios presented in this chapter we find
these items of information given in order:

1. Scene number

2. Interior or exterior

3. Locale

4. Subject

5. Camera angle

6. Detailed description of the "business" of the scene

7. Inserts, titles or other similar cut-in when necessary

8. Continuation of 6

9. Footage as determined for 35 or 16 millimeter film,
either or both being given

It will be seen that in condensed form, a considerable
amount of information is given the director. The last
point (0) is not unalterable. It is given as an approxi-
mate guide for the director in order that he may conclude

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 371

the entire action in the footage allowed. In most cases
the home drama will be limited to the usual 100 foot spool.
Thus in "When Billy Started to School" we have 87 feet
of film called for. This leaves 13 feet from the 100 foot
spool. This 13 feet will just about take care of fractional
minute over-runs, fogged frames and other waste elimi-
nated in edition. When completed we find that this film
contains from 80 to 90 feet of film if the scenario has been
followed as closely as possible.

Scenario writing is an art in itself. Few indeed are the
truly great scenarists, for the work demands many mental
qualities not often associated, but there is no reason why
every camera owner should not prepare his home scenarios
for the betterment of his films. No matter how crude the
attempt the film will be better than it would have been
without it.

So, do not hesitate to essay your first scenario. Who
knows but what you may be one of the as yet undiscovered
scenarists for whom the motion picture world has been
waiting? Rut even if you are not, you will derive an in-
finite amount of pleasure from this work.

CHAPTER NINETEEN

PREPARING TO SHOOT THE AMATEUR FILM

When the company has been organized, and a suitable
scenario has been prepared, the time has come for the ac-
tual preparation of the scene of action. This is a time
which has, no doubt been looked forward to by almost
every individual in the cast. But before the actual re-
hearsal can be started, it is necessary to arrange the place
in which the action is to take place and to prepare certain
accessories which will be used in the action. As generali-
ties convey little information, and as there is not room
here to consider even the leading types of scenarios, let us
take one type of scenario as an example. The procedure
followed will indicate the procedure which will prove most
successful for other types of production.

Let us consider a full reel production. This contains
400 feet of film and requires approximately sixteen min-
utes for projection.

(.Courtesy Bell & Howell)
When a scene is filmed it is always good practice to make a permanent record of the
data right upon the film. For this purpose a scene record booklet such as the one
shown here, contains the blank cards ready to be filled out and photographed directly

upon the film.

Vacation Films. — We have a "vacation" type of film.
In this the "hero" is a fisherman. He and his Avife go to
a fishing camp (camp shot). He starts out early in the
morning (sunrise shot, long shadows, water and trees).

372

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 373

After fishing for some time lie secures a sufficient number
of fish for breakfast (sporting shot). He returns to camp
with his fish, where he proceeds to prepare them for cook-
ing ( comedy shot ) . Then his wife cooks them in a frying
pan over the open fire ( camp shot ) . This is a type of film
which appeals to almost every one, both those who fish and
those who only wish they could.

Naturally this is a more or less record type of film, but
even so, the usual preparations will add greatly to its in-
terest. The first step is the determination of the locations.
In each case these must be selected with view, not only
to inherent beauty and pictorial composition, but also re-
garding the motion which will take place within the frame
area. The composition should be such that the eye is
drawn from any point of the boundary toward a point in
the middle foreground. At this point the campfire is built.
Do not arrange the composition so as to throw this fire
in the exact center of the frame, have it fall at one side
or another. With the fire located in the natural focus
of interest, the other details such as the tent and other
parts of the set are arranged in proper relation to this
central point of interest.

This is the principal locale. The second in point of
interest is the one in which the actual fishing takes place.
In this location attention should be given primarily to
the pictorial setting. If the arrangement is carefully
watched, the conventional angular stream may be allowed
to wind across the picture area while the fisherman is
kept in the middle distance and at one side of the frame,
casting upstream and across the frame. This will enable
the pictorial composition to be kept unmarred while the
action proceeds without interference.

The other locations for this scenario are incidental and
may be selected as the need arises. Two or three angles
should be selected from which the first set may be shot
with equal effectiveness.

When the locations have been determined upon the next
step is to dress the set. A fire is laid and started. It is
evident that with only 100 feet of film at our disposal
we cannot show the actual camp-making. For this reason

374 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

we will break into the story with a first shot showing our
fisherman picking up his rod and creel and starting out,
the preliminary facts having been told in the title. We
set up the tent and with branches we arrange a rustic
washstand and towel rack with a mirror swung from the
bole of a living tree. In the ashes near the fire we set a
coffee pot and hanging on a trimmed bush nearby the fry-
ing pan and other cooking utensils common in camp life.
Do not insert a lot of kit-chen furnishings such as double
boilers, cake turners, baking pans, and so forth. The coffee
pot is not a percolator, but a common, garden variety of
tin coffee pot beloved of campers, the frying pan is of light
pressed steel, and if the cook cannot "flap" a flap-jack
the hungry fisherman will go hungrier for cake-turners
are taboo in camp life ! In other words do not make your
film absurd by the use of properties which would not be
found in the same location in real life.

This completes the preliminary work, and you are now
ready for action as soon as you have suitable light. It is
better to shoot the fishing scene first as here you have the
open sky above the water and the reflection from the
water itself to help you in the early morning light — a light
which cannot be successfully faked. Upon returning to
the camp you will then, no doubt, have plenty of light to
make both the first and last sequence of this simple three
sequence playlet. Do not forget that reflectors are almost
as important outdoors as the arcs are indoors.

So much for the naturalistic photo-play. The more con-
ventional drama is somewhat more difficult to prepare. In
many cases interior shots will be called for. In the old
days and even in days not long past in amateur cinematog-
raphy odd angles on the outside of buildings were used
for "faking" interior shots, but in the case of the usual
amateur such scenes might as well have been labelled
"This scene is faked." There is but one place in which to
make an interior shot and this is inside some building.

The Attic Studio. — An attic makes a wonderful stage,
as it usually has many nooks and corners which are easily
converted into anything from the dungeons to the parapet
of a castle. The attic may be lined with light wallboard

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 375

and this in turn painted with kalsomines over and over
again, enabling your scenic artist to paint a fresh set for
each new play attempted. Finally, the interior shots,
illuminated by the type of arc made for amateur use have
a character which very closely imitates professional
quality.

A supply of black, white, brown and blue kalsomine
(water mixed) paints will suffice for almost any scenic
work needed. Blue, used alone will photograph very
lightly, black and white are used in mixtures to secure the
photo-grays and the brown added to give a warm tone,
killing the blue-black tone of the darker black-white
mixtures.

In dressing the set the amateur craftsman will be in his
glory. A full supply of thin tin plate, tinfoil, burlap, wire
screen cloth, plaster of paris and paint will set him up
as "Props." With such a supply of material he will be
able to deliver practically any prop you may demand from
an Egyptian sistrum to mediaeval bill-hook or modern
cigarette box. Armor is made of tin plate and tinfoil glued
to more tractable material. Boulders are made of screen
wire irregularly stretched over wooden supports. This is
in turn covered with plaster and painted. Stumps and
logs are made in the same way, jewelry is made from tin-
plate or purchased at a ten cent store.

In fact, a little ingenuity, the materials mentioned above
and the tremendous array of miscellaneous articles found
in the usual home will solve the question of properties.
In case you are working with "period" or "costume" plays,
it is always a very good idea to go to the public library
and there look up the various articles as well as the cos-
tumes proper for the period and class represented.

In practically every club there will be one or two mem-
bers who are willing to take over the supervision of prop-
erties and costumes.

Costume. — Of course in modern plays the question of
costume is quite simple, but in plays of other days it is
necessary that costumes be made for the occasion. In this
work it is well to note that there are many cotton weaves
which in every way simulate the most expensive silks and

376 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

satins upon the screen. A piece of new, cheap velveteen
will photograph to better advantage than a slightly worn
piece of the finest velvet ever loomed. In every public
library there are books which give full detail regarding
costume, jewelry, arms, furnishings and so forth. The
wardrobe mistress of your club should have no difficulty
in making costumes from inexpensive materials which
will closely simulate these originals.

There is another side to the question of costume which
affects modern as well as period costumes. This is the
question of color. There is much which might be said in
this connection, but as has been explained in another part
of this book, our colors affect the film in direct relation
to their position in the spectrum. Thus red, having prac-
tically no action whatever is photographed as black and
blue, the most active of all colors, photographically, is
photographed as white. With these facts as a guide it is
possible to estimate the photographic tone which will be
given by practically any pure color, but when mixtures
are involved, or various shades, tints and other color
variations the poor amateur may be excused for losing his
ability to even recognize the visual color of his subject,
but the final test is the monotone filter, which has been
mentioned before. This filter may be carried and used to
test the photographic color of cloth and other materials to
be used in this work.

Make-Up. — A consideration of costume brings us
naturally to a consideration of make-up as the two for
some unfathomable reason seem to be inseparable. In
professional work make-up is divided into two classes,
straight and character. Straight make-up is used, strangely
enough, to give the actor a natural appearance upon the
screen. We have found that the photographic emulsion
plays strange pranks with color. This is even more pro-
nounced in portraiture. Here we see spots, and patches
appearing in what appears to be in real life, a flawless
complexion. This is a familiar phenomenon in portraiture
and the true reason for retouching without which a pro-
fessional portrait is never delivered.

As it is evidently impossible to retouch each of the

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 377

tiny individual pictures which go to make up the motion
picture, we must "retouch" our actors and more particu-
larly our actresses before the camera is brought into action.

This straight make-up is accomplished in this manner,
although each individual actor has his own variations of
this standardized process:

The face is thoroughly cleansed and given a heavy coat-
ins of cold cream. This is rubbed in with a circular
massaging motion. After the skin has absorbed all the
cream it can, the surplus is wiped off. Then the yellow
grease paint known as "Motion Picture Yellow" is ap-
plied in broad streaks and rubbed in just as was the cold
cream. This is continued until all exposed skin of the
head, face, neck, ears, back and breast is covered with a
uniform yellow tint. The brows are wiped as free of
grease and cream as is possible. The lips are given a
touch of rouge lighter than the natural color, the ex-
pression lines are drawn about the eyes, the eyes shaded.
Then a liberal, a very liberal coating of motion picture
powder is applied and finally the brows and lashes given
their coloring of mascaro.

This constitutes the usual motion picture make-up. It
is a tedious and difficult process at best. When completed
it is so delicate that a scratch, a rub with a handkerchief,
a careless touch in fact will mar it. This make-up is
neither necessary nor desirable in amateur cinematog-
raphy. The public has come to expect and so demands
unnatural perfection in the complexions of the stars, but
your own friends would be almost unrecognizable in full
professional make-up.

A light application of cold cream may be used as a
powder foundation. Only enough cream should be used
to leave the face soft and slightly greasy to the touch. No
visible cream should be allowed to remain. Over this is
dusted the motion picture yellow face powder until it ap-
pears dry and soft. A touch of mascaro upon brows and
lashes completes the amateur make-up. The eyes may
be lined if preferred, and a slight shadow may be worked
in upon the upper lid but these touches are not really
necessary. "Remember, the lighter the make-up the better

378 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

the amateur film will be. In many cases; all that will be
necessary will be a mere touch of powder to prevent any
shining noses.

Remember that red photographs dark, so if you must
use a lip stick get the lightest shade you can find, but do
not, ever, rouge the cheeks. The writer recently saw a
feature picture produced by one of the largest and best
known producing companies, in which the star had rouged
cheeks. It was very annoying, for one felt that she had
inadverentently rubbed up against a coal scuttle !

Character Make-Up. — Character make-up is another
question entirely. Here we have to make use of various
artifices in order to present the actor in a role which is
widely different from that which he plays in actual life.
The finest character roles are a result of the actor's ability
to merge his personality with that of the character rather
than as a result of artistically applied wax and grease.
The make-up accessories are simple. Crepe hair for beards,
brows and so forth ; nose putty for building bumps, large
noses or other protuberances which are not natural to
the actor; black wax to simulate lost teeth; enamel to
cover a gold tooth which might go black (this is also used
in straight make-up as gold teeth are most repulsive upon
the screen ) wigs, false whiskers, spirit gum and an assort-
ment of grease paint. If you wish to make-up for a char-
acter part, secure a photograph of a type which you wish
to represent and then line for line, feature for feature
copy this face upon your own, using the putty to build
up, dark paint to create hollows, and so forth. For re-
pulsive roles artificial tusk-like teeth, "blind" eyes and
similar devices may be secured from costumers and novelty
shops.

Lighting the Set. — With the set built, props in place,
the cast costumed and made up, you are ready for the
actual rehearsal. If the shot is exterior you now place
the reflectors and if interior, the arcs. In the chapters on
lighting the proper setting for illumination has been dis-
cussed as well as certain other phases of lighting. Remem-
ber that the light serves (a) to give the necessary illu-
mination to make photography possible (b) to give depth

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 379

to the scene (c) to add to the psychological spirit of the
production. The first consideration has been fully dis-
cussed.

In photography we are dealing with a four dimensional
reproduction. We have the geometrical dimensions of
length and breadth, as well as the less tangible dimension
of time, but depth may be represented only by illusion.
As this is quite necessary, we should clearly understand
that there are four major ways of producing this illusion.
First we have the linear perspective. Here we uncon-
sciously estimate depth due to the progressively converg-
ing parallel lines, the usual perspective as taught in
elementary drawing. Second we have the aerial or atmos-
pheric perspective in which distance is simulated by a
constantly decreasing contrast, which makes distant hills
appear to be clothed in haze. The third effect is one of
lighting, where properly placed lights give an appearance
of roundness, and thus solidity to the object and the fourth
is a trick of illumination, in which an object in the fore-
ground is strongly lighted leaving the background com-
paratively weakly illuminated.

In professional productions, all of these effects are sub-
ject to manipulation, but the amateur is advised to take
the first two as he finds them. They are useful only in
exteriors or unusually large interiors, while the last two
may be, should be used in every interior scene.

The third effect, that of securing roundness has been
discussed in the chapter dealing with interior lighting.
The fourth consists merely of giving the principal subject
a different intensity of illumination from that given to
the rest of the scene. The backlight is one of the most
common examples of this device in which an intense light
thrown upon the back of the actor renders unmistakable
the distance existing between him and the background.

The next step is to study the set carefully to see if the
style of lighting corresponds to the mood of the scene to
be enacted. This has also been explained, and illustra-
tions given. In this remember that if you can give the
maximum illumination to the center of the set and allow
all edges to fall away slightly in illumination you will

380 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

secure a soft edge effect not unlike that secured by the
professional who makes use of chiffon edged four way
mattes. This does not mean that a spot should be used
to throw a circle of light into the set, although this device
is often quite effective. If the lights are all set fairly
close to the set and directly toward the center of the
angle, this effect will usually be secured without further
manipulation.

{Courtesy Amateur Movie Makers')
A typical amateur company on location.

Finally, do not try to use too much light. You will be
surprised to learn what beautiful effects may be secured
by giving the leading actor a full illumination and letting
the rest of the scene go darker. This gives an effect which
is entirely apart from the pseudo depth indicated, and has
to do with the psychological effect produced by the scene.
In real life we seldom have interior illumination of a glar-
ing character. To-night, look about you, watch the mem-
bers of your family as they move about the room. Notice
how great is the difference in the amount of detail which
you can see and that which is disclosed by daylight. It
is a well known fact that there are hundreds, yes thou-
sands of ladies in society who are ravishingly beautiful by
artificial light, but who appear terribly haggard and worn

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 381

by the pitiless light of day. Artificial light is far less re-
vealing than daylight, so do not try to secure the full,
brilliant daylight effect in interiors.

Examine the set carefully, see that no extraneous ar-
ticles are within range of the camera. If all is set and
ready to shoot, call the actors to the set for the first re-
hearsal,

CHAPTER TWENTY

DIRECTING THE HOME FILM

With the actors upon the set you are ready for rehearsal
and direction. You must learn to direct action at your
ease, and with all confidence, for good direction is vital to
the production of any film.

Every film which is worth the celluloid upon which it
is printed, is the result of a definite amount of direction
and rehearsal. There is little to be said of rehearsal which
is not covered by the simple rules of direction, for the two
processes are different phases of the same process. Direc-
tion is a mental process, the physical application of which
is rehearsal. The cinematographer who is his own direc-
tor, tells his actors what to do. This is direction. The
actors follow these instructions, and this is rehearsal.

When working with adults it is well to go through the
action a few times, actually operating the empty camera.
This will accustom your actors to the novelty of their posi-
tions and remove a certain amount of self-conscious stiff-
ness. However, beware of too much rehearsal, for it will
result in the stiffness of routine work. Thus, it is evident
that a happy medium must be found. When working with
children about all that can be done is to get the child into
the right mood and then crank when the opportunity
offers. This procedure is familiar to those photographers
who are accustomed to Graflex work with children. The
cinematography of wild life is an art in itself, and "direc-
tion" consists simply in knowing the habits of the crea-
tures being photographed, and utilizing this knowledge to
obtain such action as may be desired.

Direction is both an art and a science within itself. A
successful director, whether he directs a photo-drama, an
orchestra or a stage production, must combine two char-

382

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 383

acteristics which are almost diametrically opposed. He
must have the artistic sense developed to the utmost ; and
at the same time, he must ever keep cool and watch care-
fully the details of mechanics and technique. There are
few rules which can be applied to direction, and these few
are necessarily most elastic. It can be easily understood
that direction by hard and fast rule would result in a
photo-play of such mathematical inflexibility that it would
serve only to produce the utmost boredom in the spectators.

You may well think that all of this has nothing to do
with you and the production of a simple, domestic photo-
drama; but on the contrary, it has everything to do with
you. The intimate little home "shots" you will make will
be immeasurably better and far more interesting if a little
thought is spent upon intelligent direction.

Before attempting direction, the art of camera manipu-
lation must be mastered until all movements are made
automatically and without conscious thought on your part,
for all of your conscious energies will be necessary for
direction. The position behind the camera, which you
will occupy by virtue of being cinematographer as well as
director, is the ideal position for direction for then you
will see the same field of action which the camera sees. If
you will observe all the photographs of great directors in
action you will notice that they are usually near the cam-
era, in fact, they will be found just beside it, or immedi-
ately in front of and just far enough below the lens to
escape blocking the lens view. In the course of his profes-
sional experience, the writer has known directors who
stated that they could direct from the sidelines or other
remote positions; but such directors are found in small
companies and in small companies they will stay, for the
feat is beyond the powers of visualization possessed by any
but a truly superman. Unquestionably the position of the
cinematographer is the ideal directing position. This will
be realized by amateurs who have experimented with va-
rious viewpoints when photographing some scene or in-
dividual. A very slight, indeed, an almost imperceptible,
change in the position of the lens will often produce start-
ling changes in the appearance of the finished print. If

384 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

you have not tried this, take a reflecting camera and look
into the hood. Swing the camera from side to side. Ob-
jects in the immediate foreground will cross the screen in
the same direction in which the lens is moving, objects in
the middle distance will move absolutely in the same direc-
tion, but relatively in the opposite direction, and objects
in the background will move positively with the fore-
ground but at a much slower rate. Now set the camera on
a tripod, place yourself some feet to one side and with a
notebook, sketch the relative positions of various objects
within range of the lens as you think they will be rendered.
Now go and look at your camera screen. Compare your
sketch with the actual view. You will be amazed at the
result. So, when the camera is running while you direct,
remember to stay near it. Never go into the field of action
and maul your actors around with your hands as though
they were puppets. You will only get an abominable and
unnatural stiffness. Tell them what you want done and let
them do it. The interpretation of the actor may not be your
interpretation, but you must remember that it is this very
individuality and consequent variety in interpretation of
action which gives that elusive personal quality to a photo-
drama which makes for success. Direct action, suggest
appropriate "business," but leave the details of interpre-
tation to your actors. Eemember that a super-abundance
of individuality is the characteristic which has placed our
great screen stars at the top of their profession.

However this should not be taken to mean that the cam-
eraman-director should not also enter the scene as an actor.
With the modern automatic camera it is quite easy for the
cameraman-director to enter certain scenes where numbers
are needed. He can direct rehearsal from the camera posi-
tion, then start the camera, enter the scene and leave it
only when necessary to stop the camera.

Laws of Direction. — As for the rules of direction,
"They are few in number." The mathematician has set
rules. To the best of my knowledge, two and two have made
four ever since creation, but that is science. The rules of
art are constantly transgressed to the infinite betterment
of art ; and directing is an art. I cannot too strongly im-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 385

press upon you that each of the following rules should
carry the prefatory phrase, "When the action does not de-
mand otherwise — " These rules are not arbitrary, but are
the result of long experience of a generation of directors
who have produced our professional photo-dramas. As
they are primarily mechanical in origin, they are just as
applicable to the home-playlet as to the most elaborate
spectacle, in fact, more so, for the elaborate super-film may
at times demand the transgression of every rule mentioned
here, but the home-film will usually abide by them.

Do not let your actors carry their hands or other ob-
jects between their faces and the lens. In the photo-drama
the face is the center of interest. The facial expression
must bear the burden of telling the story, supported by
such pantomime as may be used. Thus, the alternate hid-
ing and disclosing of the face comes to the spectators like
a periodic and annoying interruption while reading. How-
ever, in photographing a coquette flirting with her fan, it
would be absurd to try to follow this rule. Also the grace
of certain interpretative dances would be ruined by strict
adherence to this rule. Neither should your actors impale
their cigars upon pickle forks in order to smoke without
breaking the rule. A little thought will immediately show
any necessity for ignoring this rule.

Do not let one actor come between another actor and
the lens any more than is vitally necessary. This requires
a word of explanation. The supernumeraries, or the extras
as they are more commonly called in motion picture work
are not, strictly speaking, actors. Their true position is
more exactly defined by the expression used by some di-
rectors to describe them collectively — "atmosphere. " They
fill out the scene just as do palm trees or steamer chairs.
When the scene demands a crowd it would be absurd to
film an empty set, but they are not actors and as such are
to be absolutely disregarded in the above rule. The reason
for the existence of this rule is aptly illustrated by the
familiar story of the store-group photograph.

A large department store had a Circut photograph made
of their employess. One diminutive cash girl carried her
copy home and displayed it proudly to her mother. "See,

386 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

mom," she said, "right here at this end is Sadie Milligan ;
then, see them legs just behind her? Well, them legs is
me !"

So, in your motion work. Do not let any of your prin-
cipals be so hidden that they have to be identified by
"Them legs" or by any other detached portion of their
anatomy. It will be thought naturally, using a typical ex-
ample, that in making a film of Baby that Mother is merely
an accessory, atmosphere in fact; but to have her face
alternately obscured and disclosed is even more nerve-
racking than to see a snap-shot of a pretty girl from whose
head a fully matured oak tree is growing. Keep your prin-
cipals working in opposition and clear of each other —
except where the action demands otherwise. (A love scene
would decidedly lack punch if the principals kept clear
of each other.) The writer does not wish to make a bore
of himself by constantly repeating, "When the action does
not demand otherwise," but it has been his experience that
amateurs — beginners, rather — find a constant alibi in the
expression, "The book says thus and so and I did thus and
so." Remember, knowledge is the tool of the master. He
knows the reason for the rule ; and therefore, knows when
it should be broken. The best advice for the amateur who
would be successful is this : Master your art.

Entrances and Exits. — Another test of the finished
director is his ability to keep entrances and exits disen-
tangled. They will prove most troublesome, and their ap-
parent insignificance will but add to the difficulty, for
until one film with scrambled entrances and exits has been
made, the beginner in cinematography will very probably
disregard them. Many otherwise good directors have to
figure entrances or exits on paper, or have an assistant do
it for them.

Off Screen Action. — One would naturally think that
an actor could leave the screen at any desirable point and
re-enter it at that spot which was the least obstructed ; but
owing to a psychological twist of our minds, and one by-
the-way which makes photo-drama possible, we are prone
to follow the actor while he is absent from the screen.
Should anything occur to disturb the direct continuity of

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

387

this off-screen action we are vaguely disturbed and the
resultant confusion of mind prevents a full enjoyment of
the drama we are watching. To those to whom this sub-
ject is new, this sounds like sheer nonsense, yet careful
thought and study of successful screen plays will demon-
strate that some of the most important action, action in

In the diagram "A" the actor is running across the screen and will exit at the right,
his direction of movement being indicated by the arrow. In diagram "B" it will be
noticed that the camera has been moved back and a much larger field included. This
makes the image of the actor much smaller, but it will be noticed that he_ enters from
the left and continues his movement toward the right, his goal evidently being the
house. Thus by placing two frames from successive scenes side by side it is easy
to demonstrate the theory of continuity of movement.

fact, upon which the whole story hangs sometimes, occurs
of the screen. In describing the play to others we will
include such incidents and many there are who would will-
ingly take oath that such action really appeared on the
screen. This point leads to many heated arguments among
theatre patrons in regard to past productions, for the in-
dividual will interpret off-screen action in the terms of his
individuality, and this provides a constant source of dif-
ference. If all minds worked alike, entrances and exits
could be disregarded, but owing to the individual inter-
pretation of off-screen action, the most direct course must
be pursued in order that there will be the slightest pos-
sible ground for misinterpretation on the part of the spec-
tator and the consequent resumption of screen action be
effected with as little shock as possible. Our hero may go
from New York to Hong Kong in the interval between two
scenes, or in the home-drama, Bob may go from his nursery

388

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

to the neighbor's kitchen. He may run in circles or turn
hand-springs while on the screen ; but for the preservation
of good technique, have each entrance correspond with the
preceding exit, and keep him going in a straight line oft
the screen.

Angular Exits and Reversal of the Point of View. Here we have an apparent disregard
of the rule governing entrances and exits, but we have here an angular exit with a
reversed point of view for the succeeding entrance. Note that although we have an
apparent rupture of the continuity of motion, that in the first frame we see the actor's
hack while in the succeeding frame we see his face. Note also that the shadows are
reversed as indicated by the light-ray arrows. Because it is most confusing in
any case this practice should be avoided except when absolutely necessary for the develop-
ment of the plot. The regular rule should be observed whenever possible. When the
point of view is not reversed angular exits and entrances follow the rule. Do not try
to reverse the point of view on broadside or straight exits and entrances.

To master this problem you must be able to visualize
clearly the scene preceding the one upon which you are
working. I do not mean the one which was made just be-
fore the one upon which you are working, but the one
which will be shown upon the screen just before it, for
scenes are not made in chronological order. Suppose that
Bob leaves the nursery for the kitchen and leaves by a
door at the left side of the room. We next go to the dining
room and set up the camera in such a position that he will
enter from the right, cross the screen and again leave at
the left. Then to the kitchen and set up so that he will
again enter from the right. Here he gets his cookie; and
as this is a part of the dramatic action at his destination,
he may go back and exit at the right on his way back to
the nursery, and arriving there he will enter at the left by
the same door used for an exit. This is a complete cycle

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

389

of action. The entrances and exits are reversed, but only
after action has been completed at the destination, and
such action shown unmistakably upon the screen. The re-
turn journey is to a limited degree another sequence and
entrances and exits are studied for it only, not for the com-
plete cycle. Now suppose that we had set up in the dining
room and made our film with entrance and exit reversed.
We should feel that Bob had been somewhere doing some-
thing unknown to us and was returning, for his direction
is reversed. Then if the kitchen shot followed, we should
feel that the film was scrambled and the scenes joined out
of their proper order, and our interest would be lost.

This diagram illustrates the field as used in making the scenes shown in Plate VI.
At point "A" the camera is photographing the actor who follows the path indicated
by the dot and dash arrows. The solid arrows indicate the path of light rays. The
next "shot" will be to show the corresponding approach of the actor, or the scene as
it would be "seen" by the camera were it placed at point "B." The second diagram
of this plate shows the set-up for this shot with the camera at "C." Note the reversal
of the direction of the light rays which cause a corresponding reversal of the shadows

in the picture.

When Bob got his cookie, dramatic action was complete
and he might on the contrary, have continued his walk and

390 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

have gone out into the yard, in which case, although the
dramatic action was completed, it would have been only
incidental. The final action would then have taken place
in the yard after which the return would have been
effected. Try to imagine the result— and I hope you will
never see it except in imagination — should Bob leave the
screen at the left and in the next scene enter from the
left ! In technical phrase he is meeting himself. No mat-
ter how trivial this sounds in theory, it is most confusing
in reality and will inevitably result in the loss of com
tinuity of interest on the part of the spectator. Keep
your actors moving in a straight line off the screen unless
there is a very good reason for doing otherwise and be
sure that if there is such reason it is immediately apparent
to your audience.

Off- Screen Vision. — Another closely related subject is
that of off-screen vision. This is not the supernatural,
dream or trick-vision. It is the registration of some scene
or object which lies beyond the limits of the screen, but
which is seen by some actor on the screen. That is not
very clear. Let us suppose then — to return to our typical
baby — that he begins to look frightened. The audience
may imagine that he sees a toad or a lion ; but if we flash
upon the screen a few feet of a huge, gray gander with
head and wings outspread, every spectator actually sees
this creature rushing upon the baby and they know at
once that baby is frightened by the bird. This, despite the
fact that in reality the gander may have been photographed
a thousand miles away from the baby or that the baby may
have never seen such a creature. Your audience sees this
action as plainly as though both baby and bird were upon
the screen at the same time. For this reason it is advis-
able to set up the camera so that if baby looks toward the
left, the gander is shown rushing to the right. This gives
the perfect illusion. An alternative method, used some-
times to create dramatic suspense is to place the camera
in the position occupied by the actor and in this case the
gander would appear rushing right into the lens. Could
we temporarily acquire the mental processes of the baby,
this would make a far more impressive scene than would

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 391

the first method, but like all forceful elements in photo-
drama, it must be handled properly and with the utmost
attention to detail, otherwise it will not only fail to pro-
duce the desired effect, but will also ruin. the continuity
of interest. For home drama the first method is advised.
It is simpler, easier and produces the illusion of perfect
continuity.

The Illusion of Coincidence. — The illusion of coinci-
dence may often be utilized for amusing and startling
effects. Leaving baby for the time being, let us go forth
and photograph a picnic of young people. They are all
seated around the dinner cloth when Bob slyly tickles
Mabel's neck with a straw. As a result she probably
screams, jumps up and turns around. But, if Bob has
been sly enough, there is no apparent reason for this par-
ticular bit of business when the picture is shown upon the
screen. Then go forth into the woods and fields, or merely
into the prosaic woodshed and get a few feet of a huge
spider dangling from its gossamer thread. Insert this bit
of film into the other, cutting just at the point where she
gains her feet and whirls around, and the result will be
convincing at least. Your spectators will afterward tell
about seeing a picture of a picnic where a great nasty
spider dropped right on Mabel's shoulder. Never fear,
they will see that which is not. In this work the matching
of backgrounds must be carefully done, and the cutting
must be exact as explained under the heading "Editing,"
but in all motion work, the utmost care is necessary. You
will now realize that the director must understand the
practical application of psychology. In speaking of motion
pictures, an old quotation may be aptly paraphrased, "Il-
lusion, illusion, all is illusion."

Crossing the Lead. — Your principal character (or pair
of characters in the conventional love plot) must stand out
strongly from the other actors. Not only must he not be
crossed, but every device such as a contrasting costume,
placing him as constantly in the foreground as is possible,
and keeping his face constantly toward the camera, must
be used to emphasize him. The usual photoplay is merely
pantomime enacted by the principal and supported by

392 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

minor leads and extras. You may not use these terms, but
your home films will be the same, in most cases. Any
dramatic theme must have continuity or be lost. This con-
tinuity rests upon the shoulders of the leading character.
For this reason the suppression of this character means the
suppression of the continuity — unless the specific action
demands otherwise. All action, in so far as is practical,
should take place behind this character. Do not let minor
characters pass between him and the lens, or in studio
parlance, do not let them cross the lead. Of course, this
rule is subject to the force of circumstance. Suppose for
example, that Mother is the star, supported by the children
as minor leads and Rover for atmosphere. Little Jimmy
comes running in with a scratched finger and hastens to
Mother for comfort. This is tense dramatic action. If he
comes in unobtrusively from the rear, passing behind
Mother he will appear at her side before the spectators are
well aware of his presence on the screen and all of the
force of the incident will be lost ; but if he comes in pell-
mell from a position beside the camera and crosses Mother
in his progress the audience is warned that something un-
usual has occurred and that a dramatic "punch" is coming.
By the time he reaches her side they are all prepared for
some action of importance. Even to those unfamiliar with
the technique of the motion picture, it is at once apparent
that any action important enough to warrant crossing the
lead and temporarily obscuring all other action on the
screen, is action of importance, indeed.

Tempo. — Another point of importance is that of tempo.
Tempo, or the rapidity of action, has a marked effect upon
the psychological effect of such action. You have all wit-
nessed the tense crowds at a race, barely breathing as the
horses come pounding across the line, and the hysterical
outburst which marks the let-down after the finish of the
race, yet who can imagine any such tense enthusiasm being
exhibited at a snail race? Tempo is not amendable to
strict rule; but it is usually a natural reaction. Briefly,
all action should be somewhat quickened as climaxes are
approached, and slowed down to correspond to the relief
following the climax. Youth, joy, sport and kindred sub-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 393

jects require a quickened tempo, while domestic scenes,
fire-side scenes and idylls should be enacted with action
slowed down. Avoid inappropriate action at all times. In
real life people neither race to funerals nor walk with
lagging steps to a fire.

Unfinished Action. — Do not use unfinished cross ac-
tion. This applies to action which has begun before the
scene opens, as well as to that which is not completed at
the close of the scene. If your actor is walking across the
screen, do not open with him halfway across. If you use
cross action at all, bring the actor into the scene after it
has opened and continue it until he has left the screen. Of
course, if the cross action is interrupted by dramatic ac-
tion, as at the conclusion of a walk, the exit may be dis-
regarded as it might well be inappropriate for the actor
to leave the scene. For example, a scene might open empty
and two lovers walk into the scene. Then if the dramatic
climax is effected here it would be absurd to finish it and
have the actors walk off the screen. The proper treatment
is to fade out on the embrace. However, the rule applies
to the straight cross action. It is also permissible to open
on the actor when the action is oblique, that is if the actor
is in the distance and advances into as well as across the
field. This opening on an actor at the distant end of an
oblique cross walk does not jar as it does when he suddenly
appears in the middle of the screen and calmly takes up a
cross walk. Any scene which shows the progress of an
actor from one point to another is termed a walk, no mat-
ter if he runs at headlong speed. So, cross walks are very
useful in showing the progress of a journey, to establish
the fact indisputably that the actor has embarked upon a
journey or to show amusing or pertinent facts which occur
during the journey. However, if you once begin to follow
the actor on his journey, follow him throughout its length
and show his arrival at his destination. For example,
Johnny leaves the nursery and starts to the kitchen. Then,
if you set up in the dining room and show him going
through it you must also set up in the kitchen and show
his arrival, otherwise you have left him hanging in space,
perhaps to become a satellite of the earth, but whatever his

394 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

ultimate destination, you have lost the continuity of in-
terest of your audience. If, however, you merely omit the
kitchen scene and photograph him upon his return, you
have accomplished no purpose, you have him meeting him-
self and confusion results from the breaking of the rule of
entrances and exits. If you don't want to go into the
kitchen, wait until he is about to re-enter the nursery and
then start your next scene. He will not meet himself in
this case, even though he leaves and re-enters through the
same door, for the nursery is the scene of action and a
complete cycle of off-screen action has occurred. He leaves
action and exits. He returns and resumes action. Thus,
it will be seen that the care necessary with entrances and
exits is usually applicable only to walks. The proper cal-
culation of such action is based upon your everyday ex-
perience. You may leave a house by the front door, and
later you may re-enter by the same door, all in the course
of sane and reasonable action, but you seldom walk down
the street, then abruptly back again without having
reached any destination — unless you have forgotten some-
thing— and let me say here, if you should be photograph-
ing such a scene, be sure to photograph the sudden hesi-
tation, the thought and the turning and starting back.
Don't merely show your actor passing to meet himself,
leaving your audience to surmise that he has forgotten
something.

This subject of finished action is closely interrelated to
that of entrances and exits, yet they are absolutely differ-
ent. Indeed, some of my readers may think that finished
action is that part of the work which sets at naught the
rules of entrances and exits, and such is rather near the
truth. Let each scene on the screen have definite purpose.
Thus, walks show definite progress from one point to an-
other and during its progress entrances and exits should
comply with the rule but the beginning or termination of
important action occurs in a scene which might be termed
a focus of action, and in such all entrances and exits will
be such as are the most natural for the action involved.
Suppose your setting was a room, the door at the right
opening outdoors and that at the left disclosed a bath-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 395

room. Through a window at the rear a beating rain may-
be seen. The hero dons a rubber coat and steps forth into
the storm. It is reasonable and proper for him to re-enter
by the same door. If he were to re-enter by the door at
the left, according to the rule of entrances, the spectators
would not only wonder how he got into the bathroom, but
they might also wonder at his unorthodox method of tak-
ing a shower. // not otherwise demanded by the action
it is well, when an actor leaves a focus of action, for him
to re-enter by the same door. It indicates a completed
cycle, his absence causes no confusion, and his position is
immediately identified. Upon reflection you will realize
that when you leave the house or room upon one definite
errand you usually return through the same door. This is
in direct contradiction to the general rule governing en-
trances and exits, and may prove a bit confusing; but a
little thought will show the reason for such contradiction.
All of these rules only serve to smooth the way for the
spectator. We live in the midst of drama, but it is ob-
scured by the multitude of petty details which fills our
lives. The dramatist strips everyday life of such detail
and making complexity simple he displays to our sight
the pure gold of drama recovered from the dross of life.
So remember, the simplest complete action is the best. A
pertinent detail here and there helps the general atmos-
phere at times, but irrelevant detail must be suppressed.
Looking at Camera. — Do not let your actors look into
the lens of the camera. The screen often displays the most
intimate action. Action which we should not commonly
have the opporunity to observe in real life. The position
of the spectator is analogous to that of the spy. He sees
the most private action, but by a peculiar psychological
reaction, his personality is merged with that of one of the
leading characters, so the impropriety of peeping is not
felt. If, however, the actor looks into the lens, he looks
directly into the eyes of each individual spectator in the
audience. This breaks the illusion of merged personality
and brings home the feeling of being caught in the act of
spying upon the private life of our neighbors. Suppose
you were watching a man through a powerful telescope

396 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

so far distant from him that you know he cannot see you.
You are perfectly comfortable as long as he looks away,
but let him look directly at you and you will feel uncom-
fortable, even though you know he cannot distinguish you.

This rule is broken often, especially in the large studios
where actors and actresses of proved ability are employed.
It is also used by some news men in photographing figures
of importance. In the studio it is most often used in con-
nection with the closeup to register intense emotion, and in
the resulting surge of emotion in the audience, the guilty
feeling is lost. The newsman is photographing events of
the most public nature, and if he can get a film of the
President looking directly into the lens he has obtained a
film which when projected will give to each spectator a
most delightful sense of intimacy with the head of our
nation, for on the screen the President looks directly into
the eyes of each spectator, and he feels that he has in a
measure had a direct conversation with the chief executive.
So, the rule may be transgressed in order to create a sym-
pathetic reaction among the audience, but it is' a danger-
ous business in drama, and I would advise the amateur
to avoid it.

A volume could be filled with rules, but those given will
serve to guide the way, and the fewer rules which can be
used, the more artistic will be the result. Many directors
have certain methods of procedure which are not observed
by others, but these are idiosyncrasies and to follow them
would result in an imitation of the technique of that par-
ticular director, and as most imitations are, it would be
a weak, washed-out thing.

It is best for the amateur cinematographer to start with
a very few actors in his productions. Anyone familiar
with any phase of camera work knows that the instant
anyone sees a camera pointed at him, he begins to pose,
consciously or otherwise. This is ruinous in motion work,
and upon the shoulders of the einematographer rests the
responsibility of seeing that the action is at all times spon-
taneous, or at least, apparently so. This means, of course,
that all actors must be watched constantly; and at the
first hint of stiffness, be warned against it. For the begin-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 397

ner to try to make a film with a dozen actors or so on the
screen at one time, none of whom have ever had screen-
acting experience, is to court disaster. The effort of try-
ing to keep all of them acting smoothly will confuse the
cinematographer. Then he will neglect some while trying
to correct others, and the camera had better be stopped.

Length of Scene. — In this connection it might not be
amiss to mention the length of scenes. It is apparent that
the longer the action, the more difficult it is to keep all
going smoothly. You may easily walk a dozen steps with
an armload of boat oars on your shoulder, but try to carry
them a hundred yards and you will have trouble. The
usual action outlined by the amateur will run from one to
five minutes, dull, slow, monotonous and filled with super-
fluous detail. Boil it down ! Retain only the meat of the
scene! It is an unusually important scene, even in pro-
fessional work which runs for a minute on the screen. The
writer can count upon the fingers of one hand all of the
times he has seen a professional scene of such length ! Go
to the theatre and time the scenes. You will be amazed to
find the number of scenes of twenty, fifteen seconds, and
less. Keep your scenes "peppy." Just as verbosity ruins
a story, so excess footage ruins a film. Remember that
the bulk of the action takes place off the screen, in point
of time at least, and you show only enough of the high-
lights, so to speak, to enable the spectator to follow the con-
tinuity. When you go to the theatre, calculate the time
covered by the story. The film will probably be in less
than ten reels. In this case you have witnessed action in
natural tempo, lasting two hours and forty minutes, yet
the dramatic time elapsed may be from six hours to ten
thousand years. Two hundred feet of sixteen millimeter
film, is ample to photograph a complete and interesting
home playlet with a screen time of eight minutes. Now
wait a minute ! Sit down and time eight minutes by your
watch before you express your disgust. A cinemato-
graphic minute has sixty full seconds in it, each an appre-
ciable interval of time.

I shall now mention two more points, far more profes-
sional in character, with the hope that the advanced ama-

398 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

teur will incorporate them in his home dramas to their
infinite betterment. These two points are the closeup and
the fades, both very common, in fact there is rarely a
professional motiograph made which does not include
both. They are, however, difficult to master, and must
be used properly or the photo-play would be better with-
out them.

The Close-up. — The close-up, a discovery attributed, I
believe, to D. W. Griffith, is practical only when using an
actor who is capable of registering emotion in a most con-
vincing manner, or when using a character actor who is
a past master in the use of make-up and facial expression.
In close up work every bit of skill which the cinematog-
rapher possesses is called upon, and the make-up must be
perfect. Motion film cannot be retouched and the lens
does not flatter. The close-up is only appropriate in the
display of the stress of emotion and in emphasizing action
which is so subtle that it might not otherwise be appreci-
ated. It is evident that such work requires a finished
actor, the only others who provide satisfactory close-ups
are infants who are too young to be self-conscious and the
lower order of animals. They may, of course, be used for
home portraiture, and as such will provide invaluable
records for future reference, but in dramatic action, they
may as a rule, be dispensed with in the home playlet. How-
ever, if you are filled with true amateur enthusiasm, and
have an actor, or actress, whom you believe to be com-
petent, go ahead ! Success adds immeasurably to the home
film as well as to the professional variety.

Do not confuse the close-up with the insert. The insert
is a close-up of a letter, a knife or other inanimate object
which serves to call the attention of the audience unmistak-
ably to the object in question, so its connection with later
developments may be understood.

This brings up the question of semi-close-up, medium
shot, full shot, medium long shot, long shot and so forth.
There is no set rule for these terms, which are used
by professionals to give merely a general idea of the
action involved. I heard one cameraman give the follow-
ing rules :

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 399

Close-up cut at shoulders ;

Semi-close-up cut just above waist;

Medium shot cut at knee;

Full shot cut to include feet ;

Medium long shot vertical dimensions of frame

three to five times as high as

an adult;
Long shot to include buildings in their

entirety.
It will be seen that even such a set of rules must be very
elastic, and are but vague at best. They may be conven-
ient for the amateur in conversation, but in practice, com-
mon sense is the best guide, and the shot may be called by
any name. A full shot by any other name will look as
good. Set your camera to include the desired action with-
out crowding and "shoot." If you desire to photograph an
animated conversation, cut the actors at thigh or waist if
you choose, — people now-a-days don't talk with their toes.
But a dancer, cut at the knees, would be absurd. Use
common sense. Don't try to include the whole universe.
Get important action and let the rest take care of itself.
This chapter might go on indefinitely, but there is a
limit to the space available and to the patience of my
readers. It is to be hoped that the salient points of direc-
tion as applicable to the amateur have been covered at
least to such an extent that the details may be worked out
easily. The chapter may seem to be unnecessarily profes-
sional in character, but all points mentioned are just as
applicable to the modest home drama as to the profes-
sional, multiple reel spectacle. As I have said these rules
are not as the laws of the Medes and the Persians. They
are more nearly guide posts which may point the way
around pitfalls. If they have been found to improve the
quality of professional photo-dramas does it not seem log-
ical to suppose that they will improve the home-drama? I
Have used the terms "actor," "drama," "cinematographer,"
"director" and other technical phrases. This does not im-
ply that the home-drama should be an attempt at romance
or adventure. Any person being photographed by a mo-
tion picture camera is essentially an actor. Any action

400 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

worth photographing, no matter how simple, has dra-
matic elements. LikeAvise, the man avIio manipulates a mo-
tion picture camera is a cinematographer ; and if he
instructs his actors he is also a director. The terms are
convenient — they do not deal with. strange facts. We haATe
all been actors at some time or another — either that or
some of my readers are more sincere than any person it has
been my good fortune to meet.

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
THE PRODUCTION AND USE OF FILM SLIDES

This is not, strictly speaking, a phase of amateur cine-
matography, but as it is in many ways quite similar, and as
it involves many of the operations common to cinematog-
raphy, and finally as it is so appropriate as a supplemental
feature of an evening's projection, it is not out of place to
give a little space to this new and fascinating work.

Film slides are individual still pictures, made usually
upon standard gauge motion picture film, for projection
without motion. The whole argument in favor of film slides
is exemplified in the case of the traveller. "Why waste from
thirty to fifty feet of motion picture film upon a landscape,
when a far more beautiful reproduction can be obtained at
a cost of less than five cents?" There can be no question
but what the motion picture camera of the traveller, the
vacationist, the sportsman, the explorer and of the cinema-
tographer in general should be supplemented by a single
exposure film camera.

There are a number of these cameras on the market. The
Ansco Memo is a box camera using standard motion picture
film, and making individual photographs 1 x % inch or
18 x 24 millimeters. These pictures may be easily enlarged
up to post card size. This camera is small and easily car-
ried, and has proven to be quite popular.

The original camera used for this purpose is the Sept.
This is an automatic, spring driven camera which may be
set to make motion pictures, still snaps or time exposures.
It is fairly heavy, but gives pictures of the usual standard
movie frame size, 18 x 24 millimeters, of exquisite definition.

The Ernemann line of miniature cameras include both box
and folding types, the folding cameras resembling vest
pocket cameras but somewhat smaller in size. For these
cameras, a full line of accessories are available, such as
printers for both paper and film positives, enlargers, devel-
oping tanks and racks and other necessary items.

401

402 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

The projectors offered for this work are capable of throw-
ing a full 7x9 screen image with full brilliance. There are
many types of these projectors including the Ernemann
Bobette, the Brayco and others. The Wyko is probably the
outstanding projector of this type. It has a powerful pro-
jection bulb and a fine, large aperture lens. It will give a
full 9 x 12 image. This projector is automatic in that it is
operated, that is the film is advanced, frame by frame by a
remote electrical control. This makes the machine very
valuable for demonstration work such as classroom work.
Another feature of this machine is that the film does not
have to be rewound for exhibition. The film is fed from the
center of the roll and taken-up in the same order as the
film in the retort.

Screen pictures may be obtained which are in every way
equal to those obtained by the use of glass slides. They
may be toned, hand tinted or otherwise treated as glass
lantern slides are treated. The great objection to the lan-
tern slide was the weight, cost and fragility of the slides;
the weight and size of the projector. Fifty glass slides, in
their case, would weigh ten or twelve pounds, and would
occupy two or three cubic feet of space. The same thing
on film, that is a series of positives which will give identi-
cally the same effect upon the screen would weigh perhaps
an ounce, and could be carried in the vest pocket, occupying
less than one cubic inch of space. In fact, the fifty pictures
would require three and one-eighth feet of standard gauge,
35 millimeter motion picture film.

So practical and so efficient has this process been found
to be that it is rapidly replacing the glass slide in all kinds
of work. In view of this fact manufacturers of stereop-
ticons have introduced auxiliary apparatus for converting
the usual type of slide projector into a film-slide projector,
while the Spencer Lens Company have introduced a special
model of their "Delineascope" for this work.

There is but one objection to this type of camera. The
negatives, while all right for projection are not large enough
for direct prints or paper enlargements of satisfactory size.
In order to overcome this defect a complete set of apparatus
including camera, enlarger, printer, projector and other
accessories has been introduced. This equipment makes a
picture the size of two standard frames, 1 x IV2 inches or
24 x 36 millimeters in size. This is the Leitz Leica equip-

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 403

ment. The camera is smaller than the smallest vest pocket
camera, yet it is equipped with a self capping focal plane
shutter with speeds from 1/20 to 1/500 second as well as
time. It holds sufficient film for 30 exposures in a metal
magazine which can be easily changed when the film has
been exposed. The camera alone can be carried in the vest
or trousers pocket without being noticeable. The complete
outfit of camera, two extra magazines in container and dis-
tance meter come in a leather carrying case which can be
swung beneath the coat or carried in a coat pocket, without
inconvenience.

(Courtesy
The Leitz Leica Camera

The lens is a 2 inch, f 3.5 of such correction that flawless
paper enlargements up to 8 x 10 may be easily secured.
This lens is mounted in a micrometer focussing mount grad-
uated from infinity to 1% feet.

This camera is the most exquisite, most efficient and most
practical camera made for the photographer who must
economize in bulk and weight.

As this camera is used in both vertical and horizontal
positions, the film carriage of the special projector is made
to swing so that vertical and horizontal pictures may be
alternated upon a single film and projected without any
difficulty. This is a feature of prime importance, as it
allows much better composition of some subjects.

The printing machine is about the same size and very
similar in appearance to the camera. It is arranged to print
the film negatives upon a roll of paper, but in this work the
film may be moved independently of the paper making
selection possible.

404

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

The enlarger is of the usual vertical type and has a dif-
fused light which makes it possible to enlarge scratched film
giving an enlargement which, while sharper in every photo-

(Conrtesy E. Lelts, Inc.)
Actual size of Leica Print with an enlargement from same negative.

graphic detail than the usual enlargement, is free from
scratch marks. This is something which has not before
been satisfactorily accomplished.

The camera may also be equipped with a supplementary

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 405

lens which makes possible the reproduction of objects from
about 4x6 inches down to about 2x3, the object in each
case filling the negative. There are some sixteen variations
of size possible, corresponding to the focussing mount cali-
brations. For use with this lens a folding stand has been
made which enables the photographer to make photographic
copies of pages of books without difficulty. An ordinary
book of 250 pages may be photographed upon 31 feet of
film, which makes a roll of about 1% inches long by one
inch in diameter, each negative being capable of being en-
larged to twice the original size of the book. The stand is
also suitable for making large scale copies of various small
objects, such as jewelry, stamps, insects, etc.

Thus, serving, as it does, to produce paper contact prints,
enlargements up to 8 x 10, positives on film for projection
and copying, this camera, despite its small size, is more truly
universal than any camera heretofore introduced — because
with all of these possibilities, the instrument itself may be
carried in a pocket without discomfort. It forms a logical
part of the traveller's equipment and supplements the mo-
tion camera in many ways.

Single frame positive films may be hand tinted very easily
and in this way the screen effect is greatly improved. In
fact by tinting, toning and coloring these single frame pic-
tures, they may be made considerably more attractive than
the same inanimate scene made upon motion film.

PART THREE
Appendix

APPENDIX

FILTERS: THEIR USE AND FACTORS.

Filters are pieces of colored glass used to hold back the
excessive ultra-violet and violet rays, allowing the less active
yellow and green rays time to act. The result is a more
truthful tonal rendering, with a toned sky and cloud effects.
As clouds enhance the beauty of any outdoor scene to such
an extent, it is always better to retain them if possible. The
2x and 3x filters will usually do this.

Filters are known, in amateur cinematography, as 2x, 3x
and 4x. This means that used with the usual 16 millimeter
emulsion the time of exposure is increased two, three or
four times. In using the Dremophot, the compensating time
is indicated, the speed factor 32 being used for a 2x, 48 for
the 3x and 64 for the 4x filters, but for the benefit of those
who do not have this meter the following table is given. In
each table the upper row of figures indicates the usual stop
as given by the exposure meter or as determined visually.
The lower row indicates the actual stop used on the camera
with the filter named. This table does not show exact mul-
tiplication of the "f" values but is changed to indicate the
nearest usual calibration. The amount of error will not
noticeably affect the film.
FOR 2x FILTER.

Meter 1.5 1.9 2.0 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.6 6.3 8.0 11.0 16.0

Use 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.5 2.8 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.6 8.0 11.0

FOR 3x FILTER.

Meter 1.5 1.9 2.0 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.6 6.3 8.0 11.0 16.0

Use 1.5 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.5 5.6 6.3 8.0

FOR 4x FILTER

Meter 1.5 1.9 2.0 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.6 6.3 8.0 11.0 16.0

Use 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.7 3.0 4.0 5.6 8.0

The tremendous value of the f 1.9 and f 1.5 lenses are
shown here, as with the slower lenses filter work is greatly
limited.

PROJECTING FORMULAE.

There are often cases when one wishes to know various
facts concerning the projection of amateur films and in most

409

410

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

cases when the question concerns image size, focal length of
lens and so forth, the following formulae may be used to
advantage.

We assign arbitrary symbols to the factors involved in
such calculations as follows: The throw, or the distance
between projector and screen "T", the width of the image

Focm.

LIN6TH
LE.NS

io i \z i le

£5

40 145

50 164

FIGURES «T MtFID •/ COUOflS INOICRT

_ DISTANCE, DtTWLtN 5CT\tl_H *■*,£ P1TOJ £O0i\

3.06
2.26

3.85
2.35

4.62
3.42

6. lb
4.56

770
J. 70

7.63
7.13

1 1/ 205

H 1.52

25?
1.10

3.06
2.28

M-.l I.

3.04

5M3

3.60

6.1+2
4.75

6.2!
6.08

9.2H
6.8H

\.5h

1.14

1.13
|.*3

2.31
1.71

3.06
226

3.65
2.65

481
356

6.1b

4.56

b.13
5.I3

7.70
5.70

6.66
6.1+1

7.63
7. 13

1.23

I.5H-
I.IH-

1.85
1.37

2.46
1. 63

3.06
2.26

3.65
2.85

if. 13
315

5.54
4.I0

fc.ib
4.56

fc.13
5.13

5.70

r&6

7.30

—

1.26
.15

\.5W
I.IH

2.05
I.5R

2.57
J. 10

3.21
2.36

if. II

304

4.1,2
3.42

513
3.60

577

4.28

6.H2
4.75

a 21

b.08

1.1,3
713

—

1.10

-61

1.32
.16

1. 76
1. 30

2.20
U3

2.75

2. OH

3.52
2.60

3.%

2.13

4.40
5.26

4.15
3.66

550
4.07

7.04
5.2/

8.25
6.11

I. It
.86

1. 34
I.IH

I.IH
I.K3

2>HI
1 73

3.00
226

3-47
2. 57

3.65
a. 65

435
3.BI

4.82
357

6ib

45fc

122.

5-35

Courtis

HowtuC

ible o

: scre(

:n siz(

:s at

variou

s dist

inces

with a

-arious

lenses.

upon the screen we call "D", the focal length of the lens is
indicated by "F" while the frame size is designated by "A".
In these formulae "A" will always have a value of 10.5
in millimeters or approximately .4 inch.

When we wish to know the focal length of a lens used in
our projector we make use of this formula:

F = — x A

When we know the distance and the focal length and

wish to determine the width of the picture which will be

projected we make use of this formula:

T
D = — x A
F
And finally when we know the distance between the
screen and the projector and the width of the picture upon
the screen, and wish to know the focal length of the lens
used we find that

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 411

F = — x A
D

With one or the other of these formulae we are enabled to
perform almost any calculation which may arise in connec-
tion with the optical factors of projection.

SIZE OF FIELD INCLUDED BY VARIOUS LENSES AT
VARIOUS DISTANCES.

The question often arises, "Just what can I get in my pic-
ture at a distance of fifty feet?" or "How far away must I
get to make a full length shot of a man six feet tall ?" The
most obvious answer is, "Take the camera out and find out."
This is the answer of the haphazard, casual film-snapper.
The serious amateur needs just this information in order
to plan his shots. It is obvious that no definite answer can
be given to these questions unless we know the focal length
of the lens used. In addition to this, information con-
cerning the included angle of the lens will be of great serv-
ice in laying out the lines for amateur production and in
planning sets.

Through the courtesy of the Bell & Howell Company, we
are enabled to give this information in a concise, ready
reference table, which is printed upon the opposite page.

The cine camera, it must be remembered, always makes a
horizontal picture. For this reason we have two measure-
ments for each lens and distance. These two are the hori-
zontal field included, and the vertical field included. These
two measurements are indicated by the letter "H" for hori-
zontal and "V" for vertical. As the position of the lens is
fixed as is any given distance, it will be seen that these
two measurements form the bases of two dissimilar tri-
angles, so it follows that we have two angular measure-
ments, one for each field. It will be noted that neither of
these angles is the true effective angle of the lens, for this
angle takes the diagonal of the field (or negative frame) as
its base.

All distances are given in feet, including the measure-
ments of the fields. The multiplication factor for reducing
this to inches is given immediately below the table.

This table is based upon the normal included angle of the
lenses and does not take into account the decrease in the
angle (and field) due to increasing the distance between the

*■
c

Lu
I

o
Z

2 *~

\\ * u

Z U
C ^

J <r
u

< £

Z K

«£ "
« IS
S 1

\\ -

0 (=>

r
i/>

z
111

a
°

3
—

J-

2|?

iO CO

o
5

0
cv2

-0
O

Cr-

•O

cr-

cO
0

tr-

r—

:*
0

6
t

{

10
0

T
«|

t
14

0
0

u
0

i>
o-

T
ul

0
0

i
\

■i

•4

e
0
U

J-

in
er

•o

to
O

«o
c^
0-

cvi
c-

-0
c<

-0
cO

c—
ol

-o
o

-0

r-r

«0

100

c—
cv2

cr-

o
o

-0

.a-

to
cr

-0

v-O

'■o
06

'O
06

°9
6

CV
CNJ

0—
O
o2

0
0
0}

r-
to

cO
O
«0

07
00
o2

6
n2

CvJ

02
cr

-*■
lo

c~7

cr-

>X1

J-

■a

«r

C\2

-0

cr:
CO

c-
6

0—

cr1

-0

ar
-0

C—
-O

c\J

or
0
o2

-0

0
cr

«S

CO
!0

°9

3t-

10
CO

o
o

IT)

XT'

p—
'0

1
02

to
0

00
cr

±
-6

oO
CO

«2
CO

-0
JO

-0

cvi

cO
Lo

cO
CO

0
to

cO
CO

0
rO

00
CO

cr
oi

cvi

c\J

o
cr

r-
cr

cr
-0

-0
CO

02
CO

-3

•?

«o

0-
02

0—

at-

*■

-0

o—
tO

c\2

_»

o2
Q0

e'-
er

IO.

J-

Jo
CV2

cvi

cr,

-0

cv2
c-.

cr
•r\2

O*
r\2

CV2

cr-

•o

NO
3^

«o.

q
oi

oO
cr.

c>.#

at-
-0.

afrt

ar.

0.2
cO

J-

C\2

°0.

«o#

00
CO.

a*-

cO
02

-0
02

—

cO.

±
00.

0—

cO
o2

cr
D2

C\2
i>-

c-o.

or
CO

0- ^0
c\2 c^

0—

0-
O

cr-

CN2

« L

cv2 || — ,

at*

ff"

cr-

cr--
cv2

oO
02

CT-

J-

r-
q

-0
0

uo
p

—j
o
2

o1
C\2

o—

"o2

cv2

cr-
1

r-
LD

■7—
1

1
0

(

"0
cv2

c\2
.1

'0
10

|. 0

i
cO

1
0

Z
or
o_

y Z -

O uJ
-1

c\2

ISO

ITS

-**

412

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

413

lens and the film which takes place in focusing upon very
near objects. Thus, in the last case, the 6 inch lens at 1
foot. When this lens is focussed at approximately infinity,
the rectangle cut by its included angle is about .06x.05 foot,
but when focussed at 1 foot this is 7.5mmxl0.5mm.
DEPTH OF FIELD.

When working with cinematographic lenses it is often
quite essential to know the depth of the field, that is those
distances which represent the nearest and farthest points
which an object can occupy and still be in sharp focus. The
depth of this field decreases as the object approaches the
lens.

TnBLF or HYPtRFOCnU DtSTftNCLS.

FOCAL

LENGTH

LENS

RELM
1.5

IVE. APE
2

RTURE ■
2.8

MUMBER

3.5

•"« Dl
4-

APHR/U

4-. 5

n sto
5.6

P USED
8

I.HCH

m.b

27.75

20.60

IS. SO

'3-87

//.<?0

lO.itO

1.Z5

7.60

s.zo

3.80

2.60

life wen

S3.8

62. 4-

46-88

3400

31. 20

26-8

23.44

20. 8

11.12

8.5

5.6b

2.NCH

Mb. if

III

63.2

608

555

4T6

m.fe

30.4

208

15- 2

104

3 INCH

3^5

ZH^t

m.5

136

IZH.Q

1072

S3-76

63. £

46.66

23. H 4

32-

567

390b

2<13.4

2,13

1153

161.4

14 6.7

no. a

106.5"

73-34

53.25

36.6

w„

665.5

H44

332.6

243.2

222

HO. 4

166.4

146

121. b

63.2

60.fi

m.fe

kW*

&44.b

561. b

422-3

306

280.8

241

2-11. S,

I8TE

153

105.5

76.5

52.7

6-nch

1500

<na.H

750

54 4

4TJ.2

42.6

373

332.8

272.

167.5"

136

9 3.73

Table of hyperfocal distances.

Before making this determination, the hyperfocal distance
of the lens and stop used must be determined. This value
is represented by the symbol H in the following formulae.
Other symbols are : F — focal length of the lens used ; Ra —
Relative aperture; C — diameter of largest permissible cir-
cle of confusion and X — any unknown factor.

F2 x C If we focus upon infinity the nearest

H = object in sharp focus lies at a distance

Ra equal to H.

If we focus upon an object at the distance H (more

exactly H

F) all objects from — to infinity are in focus.

Examples — in which F = 2; Ra — 4 and C = .01 inch.

2 x 2 x 100 400

H = = — — = 100 inches or 8 feet, 4 inches.

4 4

Then, if we focus upon infinity, all objects from 8' 4" to

infinity are in sharp focus, the nearest object in sharp focus

lying at a distance of 8' 4".

curt >£•" o u « a 5

•£*£-= ? c «j= Sell

_ 4) « G ?-, «o

£ E « g v sii « «■« 5

"S «2

- u C G >> w co g.S
C*. 3 > (U-G.U C.2

o E 3

C ««,
•- <u: —
©ex c

E >g » rt>«cc.2Wt-
ki o jj *j i_i o «a

.Si c 2S-<nJ£ u-c ^ «>'
2 .a* c wfc o «£ £ - 8

« 3 C *-> >, .~

Ph c T3 -o cu rt rt «"« >o

o o cu tn "£ ,. ^ u

i «».2 .1 2"* §■§ *tp

•*' 3 in"

.22 E c c c ?! « 3 £ s*

va c 0.2

C "5 «.«G , « S

OT3T3 O^C_ J- 0-f=f; °

•3 G o§ u.H eg

>:2 en' C
h toT3-- as

« £ s

^ JJ «- ft« S- o- *

O G G ., u r^k, li

rt G to -a ^r H ^- >^ S

rt 4J S— cn^CtLiU

u « o ^^.2

414

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 415

Also if we focus upon an object lying distant 8' 4", then
everything lying between 4' 2" and infinity will be in sharp
focus.

However, with the usual values, F = 2; Ra — 3.5 and

2 x 2 x 500 2000

C = 0.002" (1/500M inch) H = =-= = — —

o.o *5.5

= 571 inches or 47.5 feet. The greatest difference between
this and the foregoing example being the diameter of the
largest permissible circle of confusion.

If we focus upon an object which is nearer to the camera
than the hyperfocal distance, we encounter an entirely new
problem, inasmuch as we must determine the maximum
limit as well as the minimum. When we focus for a distance
less than H, objects at infinity are no longer in focus.

If we focus upon an object at the distance X, the distance

H X

of the nearest object in focus is — — while the farthest

H -|- D

object in sharp focus lies at a distance which is equal to

H X

H — D

Here we have a new factor "D". D is equal to X minus F.

However, when the distance X is equal to 25 focal lengths

or more, the factor D may be disregarded and X used in its

place. Thus for such distances the depth extends from

H X H X

H + X H — X

As H is a definite factor, X should be expressed in the
same units at H. Thus if H is expressed in feet, then X
must be expressed in the same manner.

Examples : What is the depth of field when the 2", f 3.5

T rt A n 47.5 x 3 47.5 x 3
lens is focused at 3 feet? to

47.5+ (3 — 1/6) 47.5— (3 — 1/6)

equals ■ — to A A ' - equals 2.88 to 3.19 in which case

49.434 44.666

we have a depth of field of 0.31 feet or roughly four inches.

In this case it is essential that the factor D be used.

Example: What is the depth of field if the 2", / 3.5 lens

, n 47.5 x 25 47.5 x 25

is focused at 25 feet? ,„ g . og to — — — - equals

47.5 + 25 47.5 — 25

1187.5 , 1187.5 , iCO, KOQ, . . ... n.

to equals 16.3 to 52.8 feet, in this case D is

72.5 22.5

416

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

disregarded and X is used instead, as the distance X is more
than 25F.

DEPTH OF FIELDS OF TWO DISSIMILAR LENSES:

For equal depth the Ra of the lenses must vary in propor-
tion to the squares of F.

DEPTH IN ENLARGEMENT SUCH AS IN
PROJECTION OR PROJECTION PRINTING:

Given: An image formed by a lens of known aperture
(Ra) and focal length (F) . This image is enlarged X times.
The result has the size and the depth of an image formed
by a lens whose aperture is RaX and whose focal length
is FX.

Example: The image from a 2", f 4 lens is enlarged six
diameters. It is then equal to the image formed by a lens
of 12" (6 x 2) focal length at f 24 (6xA).

Also, The image from a 1", f 3.5 lens (usual 16 mm. cine
lens) is thrown upon a screen 1050 millimeters (approx.
40"J wide, the image is equivalent to that from a lens of 8.33
Feet focal length at an aperture of f 350/ This accounts
to a great extent for the remarkable results obtained in mo-
tion picture projection.

Minor ConJuobii.
(Poartn.on)

Conjugate foci. The broken lines indicate the path of a ray of light from a great
distance. The solid lines indicate the path of a ray from a nearby object. This ray
is focussed at a greater distance from the lens than the first ray. Thus we have
two factors, the distance from the center of the lens to the object which we call the
Major or Anterior conjugate and the distance from the center of the lens to the
screen as the Minor or Posterior conjugate. In the above figure the distance "ac" is
the Minor conjugate while the distance "cd" is the Major conjugate.

CONJUGATE FOCI.

There are times when we wish to make a negative image
which has a definite size relation to the original — and want
to know the lens setting to secure this ratio — at times we
wish to know the lens extension when the lens is focussed
upon some object less than the hyperfocal distance, and

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 417

when this distance is known. In short there are many occa-
sions when we wish to know certain facts which are con-
cerned with the front focus, back focus and ratio of image
to original size. These things may all be determined
through the use of the formulae based upon the conjugate
foci.

We are all familiar with the path of light rays through
a lens. We know that from a single point in the object the
rays spread until they cover the entire lens, then they are
converged by this lens and meet at a common point or
"focus" behind the lens. Thus in the diagram we have "d",
a point in the original object, "a", a point in the sensitive
surface or film, the point of focus. Now the distances ac
and cd form the conjugate foci, ac being the posterior or
minor focus while cd in the anterior or major focus, repre-
sented respectively by m and M.

This gives us these factors:

m = F + (F/R) Also M = F + (FR)

Then it follows:

mR = M also m = M/R.
Examples :

1. Given a six inch lens. A negative image 1/4 natural
size is to be made. (R then = 4). m — F + (F/R)
= 6 + 6/4 = 6 + l1/^ = 7V2- Minor conjugate equals
71/2 inches. M = F + F# = 6 + f6x4J =6 + 24
= 30. Major conjugate equals 30 inches. There-
fore the lens extension is 7V& inches and the object
placed 30 inches from lens.

2. A six inch lens is focussed upon an object 10 feet fl20
inches) away. Find m and R. M = F + FR. Then
120 (M) = 6 (F) + 6R, or 120 — 6 = 6R, or 114 =
6R or 19 = R. Also m = M/R or m — 120/19, or
m — 6.313 inches the minor conjugate. Then, when
the six inch lens is focussed at 10 feet, the extension is
6.313 inches and the image formed is l/19th natural
size.

TO REPRODUCE OBJECTS UPON THE
SCREEN IN ANY DESIRED PROPOR-
TION TO THE ORIGINAL SIZE.

It is often desirable, particularly in scientific work, to be
able to reproduce upon the screen an image whose size bears

418 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

a definite ratio to the size of the original. In such cases it
is evident that the screen size must be constant. Any com-
bination of projector lens and projection distance may be
used which gives this constant screen size. If a different
screen size is used, it is evident that a new computation
must be made.

This calculation makes use of the formulae given under
"Conjugate Foci."

The frame size of the 16 millimeter film is 10.5 milli-
meters, in width. The first step is to determine the value
of R', the ratio existing between screen size and frame size.
The width of the screen in millimeters divided by 10.5 gives
this value. (The width in inches is multiplied by 25.4 and
divided by 10.5 to give this value, or directly by multiplying
the screen width in inches by 2.42, which is nearly enough
correct.)

The factor r is the ratio existing between the size of the
original and the screen size.

Then it may be seen that R, the ratio between original
and frame size equals R'/r.

Example: With a 40 inch screen, and with a 1 inch
camera lens ive wish to project a life-size image.

In this case r = 1. Then R = R'/l or simply R'.

Then as 40 x 2.42 = 96.8, R' must also equal 96.8 and
consequently R equals 96.8.

We have seen that M = F + (FR) or in this case M =
1 + 1 x 96.8 or 97.8 inches.

In this case the object is placed 97.8 inches or 8 feet,
8.8 inches from the camera.

Given : A 2 inch lens on the camera to project a double
size image on a 1050 millimeter screen.

R' = 100 and r — 2. Then R'/r = 50. Then R = 50.

As M = F + (FR), then M = 2 + (2 x 50j ; M = 2 +
100; M = 102.

M equals 102 inches or eight and one-half feet, the dis-
tance of object from camera. We can readily understand
that if the ratio of original to film size is 1 : 50 and the film
to screen size is 1:100 the image will be double natural
size.

Given: same conditions to make a half size image.

Rf = 100 and r = 0.5. Then R'-/r = 200 and R = 200.
Then 2 f2x 200; = 402 inches or 33.5 feet, the distance of
the object. Here as the film image is 1/200 original size

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 419

and this is enlarged 100 times in projection we have 100 x
1/200 equals V£ original size.

VARIATION IN RELATIVE APERTURE WHEN
WORKING WITH VERY NEAR OBJECTS.

It is quite often necessary to work with objects compara-
tively near the lens, and when this distance is less than ten
focal lengths, the extension of the lens is such that the
values of the relative apertures (f numbers) marked upon
the iris ring are no longer correct. If the work in hand is
of such nature that a correct exposure is necessary, without
any variation, the true relative aperture must be computed.

We have seen that M = F + (FR), also that mR = M.
This enables us to find the absolute value of the minor con-
jugate m, or as we might state it the true lens extension.

We have already seen that if Di represents the actual

F
diameter of the aperture, that — r = Ra. If this is true, then

it must be obvious that — = Ra' or the true Ra- at any

extension. To find the value Di we have — ~ = Di.

Example: (Involving a number of computations given
in this appendix.)

Given : A screen 41 inches wide fl050 millimeters) upon
which we wish to project pictures of small beetles which in
real life are 1 inch long. It is required that the screen
image be 1 foot long. What computations as to conjugate
foci, relative size and exposure are involved, when using a
six inch lens at marked aperture of f 8.

Relative size: We have seen that R = 100 with a screen
1050 millimeters wide.

r in this case equals 12 (1 inch to be enlarged to 1 foot).

Then as R is equal to R' divided by r, R equals 8.333.

Also as M = F + FR, then M — 6 + 6 x 8.333 or M =
55.998 or practically 56 inches.

The object is to be placed at 56 inches from the lens.
The lens extension or m equals 6 -|- 6/8.333 or 6.722 inches
or about 6% inches. At this extension the true f value is
determined in this manner.

Marked Ra equals F/Di; conversely Di equals F/Ra or
6/8 or 0.75.

Then m or 6.722 inches is divided by 0.75 or Di to give

420 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

8.962 or practically /9 the true relative aperture at which
the exposure may be calculated. As 82 equals 64, and 92
equals 81 we have an exposure difference of roughly 6: 8 or
3 : 4, which is quite enough to throw us off in calculation of
exposure.

DISTANCES FROM OBJECT TO SECURE
LIFE SIZE PROJECTION.

It is often desirable to secure life size projection of any
object upon the screen. This may be easily done by refer-
ence to the following table. In this table we have three
factors; the focal length of the lens used, the size of the
screen used and the distance of the subject from the camera.
It is assumed in each case that the "screen" size given is the
actual area covered by the frame of the film which measures
approximately 0.3 x 0.4 inch.

Focal

Screen Size

Length 6x8

12x16 16x21 24x32 30x40 36x48 39x52 84x108

of Lens

Distance of object from <

samerE

i lens.

20 m/m.

1.5

3 4 6

9.75 21

25 m/m.

1.75

3.5 4.6 7

8.75

10.5

11.37 24.5

35 m/m.

2.5

5 7.6 10

12.5

16.25 35 •

50 m/m.

3.5

7 9.3 14

17.5

22.75 49

3 inch

10 13.3 20

32.5 70

33/4 inch

6.6

13.25 17.65 26.50

33.1

43.3 92.75

4 inch

14 18.6 28

45.5 98

6 inch

10.5

21 28 42

52.5

68.25 147

Example: Let us suppose that you use a 30 x 40 inch
screen, one of the most popular sizes in use for amateur
projection. You wish to make a close-up showing a mem-
ber of the family in full life size. You are using the usual
one inch or 25 millimeter lens. Find 25 m/m in the left
hand column. Follow this line to the right, where under
the screen size 30 x 40, you will find the distance 8.75. The
subject, then, must be 8% feet in front of the camera if the
film is to be projected later in full life size. Remember that
a change in screen size also changes the size of the image
projected from any given film.

For convenience of those who are not familiar with the
metric system, the accompanying table of equivalent focal
lengths is given:

4/5 in. 1 in. 1% in. 2 in. 3 in. 3% in. 4 in. 6 in.
20mm. 25mm. 35mm. 50mm. 75mm. 89mm. 100mm. 150mm.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 421

RELATION OF EXPOSURE AND DEVELOPMENT.

unaer
development

Normal
development

Over
development

Under
expoeed

Correctly
exposed

Over
exposed

The effect of exposure and development.

The one great prevailing fault among cine amateurs of
to-day is their neglect of exposure. The thought seems to
be, "Oh well, let the laboratory take care of it !" The sooner
the amateur realizes that this is impossible, the sooner ama-
teur cinematography will approach professional in quality.
The laboratory can smooth over the gross errors to a cer-

422 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

tain degree, but no laboratory can put quality in the nega-
tive which was not impressed upon the film during exposure.

To make this more plain, the accompanying chart is given.
Here we have in exaggerated form the three degrees of
exposure with the three corresponding degrees of develop-
ment. This gives us nine combinations of which one and
one only is correct. This is number five, correctly exposed
and correctly developed.

In each exposure set we have a broken line at the top
indicating one limit of the positive scale and a solid line at
the bottom which indicates the opposite limit of the posi-
tive. Any negative gradation lying above the broken line
will print upon the positive as pure white, while any grada-
tion lying below the solid line will be reproduced as solid,
untoned black.

For example, in figure one we have a very thin, flat nega-
tive. Steps from one to five are shown upon the negative
as five slightly different deposits of silver. Step number
one is very light in color and the others become still more
light until at six we have no deposit. A print from such a
negative will be dark, dull and flat. But if we try to com-
pensate for the underexposure by over-development as in
figure three, we have the heaviest deposit solid black, giving
us a white upon the positive, but all steps from six to ten
are below the scale limit and all of these will print as solid
black. Here we have a full range of tone from black to
white, but the result is harsh as fully half of the tones are
represented as solid black.

If we overexpose as in figure seven, we get a differentia-
tion in all gradation steps, but the difference between any
two steps is slight, due to under-development. This gives a
thin positive full of detail. If we develop this negative nor-
mally we get the first six steps giving us pure white with
the lower scale printing lightly. If we increase printing
exposure we can lift the entire scale upward. At times it
is possible to get a good print from an overexposed correctly
developed negative, but as a rule satisfactory films are pos-
sible only as a result of correct exposure and correct devel-
opment.

THE METRIC SYSTEM

In photography and in cinematography we are constantly
encountering measures of length, volume and weight given
in metric units. For convenience, the following conversion

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

423

It is hoped that they will often prove

tables are given,
serviceable.

AVOIRDUPOIS TO METRIC

Grains Grams Grains Grams Grains Grams

1
2
3
4
5
Ounces

V2
3/,

0.065

0.13

0.194

0.259

0.324

Grams

7.09

14.17

21.26

0.389
0.454
0.518
0.583
0.648
Ounces
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0

50
Grams

2.83
5.67
8.5
11.34
14.17
17.01
19.84
22.68
25.51
28.35

0.648
1.296
1.944
2.592
3.240

Grains

90
100
Ounces

9
10

ENGLISH — METRIC CONVERSION TABLES
INCHES TO MILLIMETERS

Inches

Mm.

1/32

0.8

1/16

1.6

3/32

2.4

3.2

3/16

4.8

7/32

5.6

/4s

6.4

9/32

7.1

Mm.

Inches

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.31

0.35

Inches

5/16

11/32

%
7/16

9/16

%
11/16

Mm.

7.9

8.7

9.5

11.1

12.7

14.3

15.9

17.5

Inches

%
13/16

15/16

Grams

3.888

4.536

5.184

5.832

6.480

Grams

28.35

56.70

85.05

113.40

141.75

170.10

198.45

226.80

255.15

283.50

Mm.

19.1

20.6

22.2

23.8

25.4

MILLIMETERS TO INCHES

Mm.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Inches
0.39
0.43
0.47
0.51
0.55
0.59
0.63
0.67
0.71

VTm.

Inches

0.75

0.79

0.83

0.87

0.90

0.94

0.98

424

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

METRIC WEIGHT TO AVOIRDUPOIS

Note: All photographic formulae are compounded by
avoirdupois weight unless otherwise specified.

Grams

Grains

Grams

Grains

Grams

Ounces

Grains

0.1

1.5

15.4

153.9

0.2

3.1

30.9

308.8

0.3

4.6

46.3

0.4

6.2

61.7

180

0.5

7.7

77.2

334

0.6

9.1

92.6

0.7

10.8

108

203

0.8

12.4

123.1

360

0.9

13.9

138.5

Grams

Ounces

Grains

Grams

Ounces

Grains

100

230

600

200

700

300

250

800

400

900

325

500

280

1000

120

METRIC TO ENGLISH RAPID CONVERSION TABLE — LENGTH
DECIMAL FRACTIONS REPRESENT PARTS OF ENGLISH INCHES
No. Of
Jnits
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Example — What is the focal length in inches of a lens
marked 46 mm.? 46 millimeters equals four centimeters
plus six millimeters or 1.5748 inches plus .23622 inch or
1.81102 inches.

What is the English equivalent for 12.637 meters? This
is resolved into 10 meters plus 2 meters plus 6 decimeters
plus 3 centimeters plus 7 millimeters. This is changed by
reference to the table above to this sum in simple addition:

Jnits

Millimeters

Centimeters

Decimeters

Meters

.03937

0.3937

3.937

39.37

.07874

0.7874

7.874

78.74

.11811

1.1811

11.811

118.11

.15748

1.5748

15.748

157.48

.19685

1.9685

19.685

196.85

.23622

2.3622

23.622

236.22

.27559

2.7559

27.559

275.59

.31496

3.1496

31.496

314.96

.35433

3.5433

35.433

354.33

.3937

3.937

39.37

393.7

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 425

393.7
78.74
23.622
1.1811
.27559

497.51869 inches or approximately
41.45989 feet, disregarding the sixth decimal point.

THERMOMETRIC CONVERSION TABLES

Both Fahrenheit and Centigrade systems of measuring
temperature are common in this country, while the Reau-
mur system is not as common. We may regard the Reau-
mur system as obsolete and confine our attention to the
Fahrenheit and Centigrade systems only. Fahrenheit sys-
tem takes 32° as freezing and 212° as boiling, while the
Centigrade starts with zero as freezing and 100° as boiling.
Fahrenheit is our common system, while Centigrade is the
scientific system and a part of the metric system of measure-
ment.

To Change Fahrenheit Reading to Centigrade:

Subtract 32, multiply by 5 and divide by 9.

Example— 65°F — 32 X 5 -=- 9 = 18.33°C.

To Change Centigrade Reading to Fahrenheit:

Multiply by 9, divide by 5 and add 32.

Example— 20 °C X 9 h- 5 = 36.36 + 32 = 68°F.

Fahrenheit-Centigrade Comparison Scale in 5° Steps

0°

17.78°

70°

21.11°

145°

62.78°

5°

15°

75°

23.89°

150°

65.55°

10°

12.22°

80°

26.67°

155°

68.33°

15°

9.44°

85°

29.44°

160°

71.11°

20°

6.67°

90°

32.22°

165°

73.89°

25°

3.89°

95°

35°

170°

76.67°

30°

1.11°

100°

37.78°

175°

79.44°

32°

0°

105°

40.55°

180°

82.22°

35°

1.67°

110°

43.33°

185°

85°

40°

4.44°

115°

46.11°

190°

87.78°

45°

7.22°

120°

48.89°

195°

90.55°

50°

10°

125°

51.67°

200°

93.33°

55°

12.78°

130°

54.44°

205°

96.11°

60°

15.55°

135°

57.22°

210°

98.89°

65°

18.33°

140°

60°

212°

100°

426 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

The up-to-date and scientific cinematographer will adopt
the Centigrade system of temperature measurement in his
laboratory along with the other metric measurements.

SUBSTANDARD SIZES

In the substandard field we have several sizes, some of
which are known as substandard and others as off-sizes.
Some of the better known are :
91/2 mm. gauge — Pathex and Cine-Nizo
16 mm. gauge — Eastman Cine-Kodak, Bell & Howell Filmo,

Oxford, Victor, Salex, Cine-Nizo, Cine-Geyer, and others
17V2 mm. gauge — Ernemann, Movette, Pathe-Rural, etc.
24 mm. gauge — Pathescope, Victor Safety

The last mentioned size has become practically obsolete
as it lacks advantages of both 35 mm. (standard) and of
substandard films.

As the celluloid ribbon is nothing more than a vehicle for
the emulsion, its size has little to do with the picture size.
For purposes of full comparison, let us compare the widths
of the ribbon (the gauge), the size of the actual frame, the
area of the frame, and finally the relation of this frame area
to the area of the standard film.

Film Gauge Frame Size

35 mm. 18 x 24 mm.

91/2 mm. 71/2 x 8I/2 mm.

16 mm. 71/2 x IOV2 mm.

17V2 mm. (a) 8.2x11 mm.
171/2 mm. (b) 91/2 x I31/2 mm.
171/2 mm. (c) IIV2 x 15 mm.
35 mm. 18 x 24 mm.

Of the I71/2 mm. gauges, the letters a, b, and c refer to:

(a) — Half normal film, or split standard film with uni-
lateral perforations;

(b)— Pathe-Rural film;

FORMULAE USED IN ABNORMAL EXPOSURE SPEEDS
In processes involving abnormal exposure speed, such as
time, condensation, animation and such work, the camera
speed, if continuous or the inter-exposure interval if the
exposure is intermittent, must be carefully calculated.

The speed or interval should be of such duration that the
image upon the negative will move about 0.1 millimeter.

Relative

Frame Area

Area

437 sq. mm.

1.000

63.75 sq. mm.

0.150

78.25 sq. mm.

0.179

90.20 sq. mm.

0.206

128.25 sq. mm.

0.293

172.50 sq. mm.

0.395

437 sq. mm.

1.000

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 427

In this case we have substandard film with a frame 10.5
millimeters wide. With a motion of 0.1 millimeter per
frame, we will have to use 10.5 x 10 or 105 frames of film
to carry the object entirely across the frame. This means
that 2.6 feet of film will be used, or that the object will move
entirely across the screen in 6.5 seconds. As this motion
is seldom in a straight line, it is a fair average, but if the
subject is to be rendered with even better detail, the single
frame advance can be held to 0.05 millimeter which will
give us a cross screen movement in thirteen seconds.

For work of this nature a camera with an attachable hand
crank is of great advantage, and one which may be operated
to give one exposure at a time is quite necessary.

Examples:

a. Slow Moving Objects Such as Clouds

The subject is allowed to cross the field of vision while
being observed in the finder. If the cross screen speed of
six seconds is desired and we find that the travel across the
finder requires one minute, we know that we must expose
96 frames of film in one minute or 96 frames in 60 seconds.
This is IV2 frames per second. This may be approximated
by using the trick crank and turning slightly slower than
normal speed.

b. Very Slow Motion, as Plant Growth
Usually used with small plants showing first stages. We

know the approximate time which will be required. Let us
say that this is six weeks. In order to observe the growth,
we will want to give this growth at least two minutes screen
time. 16 x 60 x 2 is 1920, the number of frames to be used.
We have six weeks equal to forty-two days, 1,028 hours,
61,680 minutes, or 3,700,800 seconds. At normal speed this
would require 59,212,800 frames of film. We see that we
have 1920 exposures to make in 1028 hours. In round
numbers this will be one exposure every half hour. This
will give us 2048 frames or 128 frames more than we had
counted upon. This will cause our film to run eight seconds
overtime. So we use a thirty minute interval in our ex-
posure.

c. To Photograph a Cartoon in Process of Animation
A convenient size for the separate sheets of drawings is
7% x IOV2 inches. In this case we have a ratio between the
sheet size and frame size which is equal to the ratio existing
between inches and millimeters.

428 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

We proceed as in example (a) to determine the rapidity
of cross screen movement and we will suppose that the six
second rate is determined upon. We know then that the
image must move about 0.1 millimeter per frame, and as we
have an inch to millimeter ratio, the cartoon will advance
0.1 inch per exposure. The same calculations may be made
in regard to dolls, models or other animation.

In arm movements, this speed may be greatly accelerated,
the movement being increased to as much as one inch per
exposure. In turning the head, the start and finish is all
that is necessary. Detailed motion is seldom necessary
except in case small objects are being shown.

In cases involving wheels, gears and so forth, turning,
great care must be used. As such a wheel will be divided
into sections by spokes, teeth or other projections, these
parts must serve as units for the motion. The forward mo-
tion must never exceed 1/3 such unit space, for if the
advance of motion is less than one and more than one-half,
the wheel will rotate in reverse direction. If the advance is
one and one-third the effect will be identical with that ob-
tained by advancing the wheel one-third. This is supposing
that all divisions of the wheel are identical.

DEVELOPING AND OTHER CHEMICAL SOLU-
TIONS USED IN MOTION PICTURE WORK.

The amateur who wishes to experiment in home develop-
ment of films will find practically every formula he needs
among the following formulae which have become standard-
ized for motion picture work. While any good developing
bath may be used these are the ones recommended.

Developers
Number Sixteen

Water 1 gallon

Metol 18 grains

Sodium sulphite 5-1/3 ounces

Hydroquinone 352 grains

Sodium carbonate 21/2 ounces

Potassium bromide 50 grains

Citric acid 40 grains

Potassium metabisulphite 90 grains

M-Q

Water 1 gallon

Sodium sulphite 3 ounces

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 429

Hydroquinone 340 grains

Sodium carbonate 2 ounces

Metol 21 grains

Citric acid 26 grains

Potassium Metabisulphite 85 grains

Contrast or Title Developer

Water 1 gallon

Sodium sulphite 2% ounces

Hydroquinone 385 grains

Sodium carbonate 2% ounces

Potassium bromide 50 grains

Universal M. P. Negative Developer

Water 1 gallon

Metol 34 grains

Sodium sulphite 3 ounces

Hydroquinone 130 grains

Sodium carbonate 1 ounce

Potassium bromide 20 grains

Citric acid 40 grains

Universal M. P. Positive Developer

Water 1 gallon

Metol 30 grains

Sodium sulphite 2% ounces

Hydroquinone 60 grains

Sodium carbonate 1% ounces

Potassium bromide 22 grains

Sodium hydroxide 100 grains

Developer for Reversal

Water 1 gallon

Sodium sulphite 11 ounces

Hydroquinone 1 ounce

Sodium carbonate 7 ounces

Potassium bromide 1 ounce

High contrast developer giving reversed prints which are
far superior to the usual "flat" reversed positive.

Reversal Bath

Water 1 gallon

Potassium bichromate 1% ounces

Nitric acid 3 ounces

430 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Reversal Developer (Second)
Use developer given above or any metol-hydroquinone
formulae the choice being governed by the degree of con-
trast wanted.

Fixing Bath

Water 1 gallon

Hypo 2 pounds

Dissolve and add the following hardener

Water 4 ounces

Sodium sulphite 175 grains

Powdered alum 350 grains

28% acetic acid 21/2 ounces

Alternative Fixing Bath

Water 1 gallon

Hypo 2 pounds

Hardener :

Water 10 ounces

Sodium sulphite 1 ounce

28% acetic acid 6 ounces

Powdered alum 1 ounce

To Reduce Films Which Are Too Dense
A Bath

Water 1 gallon

Hypo 8 ounces

B Bath

Water 16 ounces

Potassium ferricyanide 1 ounce

Mix immediately before use.

Place in bath until density is sufficiently reduced, always
rinsing film before examining to prevent streaks. Wash
thoroughly and dry. This reducer increases contrast.

To Intensify Thin and Weak Films
A Bath

Water 1 gallon

Mercury bichloride 2 ounces

Potassium bromide ' 2 ounces

Allow to remain in this bath until thoroughly whitened,
rinse carefully and place in

B Bath (mix fresh)

Water 1 gallon

Sulphite of sodium 16 ounces

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 431

Allow to remain until thoroughly cleared.
Note — Film must be thoroughly washed and free of hypo
before intensification.

Toning Films
The thoroughly washed film is placed in the

Bleach

Potassium bromide 400 grains

Potassium ferricyanide 3 ounces

Water 1 gallon

Film is allowed to remain in the bleach until, all blacks
have turned to buff. It is rinsed for not more than one
minute and then placed in the

Sulphide Bath
Sodium sulphide (Not sulphite) . . 20 ounces

Water 1 gallon

When thoroughly toned, which should be within thirty
seconds, the film is rinsed and dried.

Bathe Reversal Brocess
The following is one of the most satisfactory methods of
securing positives by reversal yet produced.

The films are divided roughly into four classes, according
to the time required for the image to appear in the first
developing bath. This factor determines the total length
of development.

Class First Appearance Total Development

A Within first 20 seconds About 6 minutes
B 20 to 40 seconds About 12 minutes

C 40 to 60 seconds About 15 minutes

D Up to IV2 minutes Maximum 25 min.

In the case of severely underexposed films the absolute
maximum period of development is 28 minutes.

First Developer
Para-phenylene-Diamine compound (Pathe) . . . 1 oz. 22 gr.

Sodium hydroxide 150 gr.

Water 35 ounces

When film is developed according to class, it is rinsed and
placed in the reversal bath.

Reversing Bath

Potassium permanganate 30 grains

Sodium bisulphate 380 grains

Water 35 ounces

432 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

(170 minims sulphuric acid may be substituted for the
sodium bisulphite.)

Treat in this bath for 7 to 10 minutes until dense black
deposit is removed. Wash thoroughly and then continue
process in full daylight. It is placed in the

Clearing Bath

Sodium bisulphite 75 grains

Sodium sulphate 75 grains

Water 35 ounces

Allow to remain until whites are transparent, then add
to above bath

Sodium Hyposulphite 150 grains

This forms the second developer. Allow to remain until
image is fully darkened, wash thoroughly and dry. The
above mentioned chemicals may be obtained from Pathe
Freres, Vincennes, France.

GLOSSARY

In each sport, in each pastime, in every art and in every
craft we have a certain vocabulary which is known as the
''technical vocabulary" of that particular field of activity.
In cinematography we have an extensive professional tech-
nical language, and from this we take many words for
amateur use. In addition there are a certain number of
words which are limited to use in connection with amateur
cinematography. These words are given in this list, not as
a lesson to be learned, but as a reference to be used in deter-
mining definitions of strange words.

Action — The events of a dramatic motion picture; the de-
velopment of a story.
Actograph — An amateur motion picture camera, one of the

first made.
Agfa — Name of manufacturer of 16 m/m motion picture

film.
Amateur — One who makes motion pictures for pleasure.
Usually quite expert in the work. The word has no rela-
tion to the size of film or type of camera used.
Angle, Camera — The angle of view taken by the motion
picture camera through the two outer edges of the pic-
ture give the camera angle. Occasionally it may mean
the vertical angle of the camera.
Angle Shot — An insert scene continuing the same action but

shot from another angle.
Animation — Photographing inanimate objects in such a
manner that, upon the screen they appear to have the
power of voluntary motion.
Aperture — In speaking of lenses, aperture means the iris
diaphragm opening. In speaking of motion cameras
or projectors it means the oblong hole which frames the
picture being taken (or projected) . Do not allow these
two different meanings to confuse you.
Aperture Plate — The metal plate around the picture open-
ing in the camera or projector.

433

434 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Arc — A form of electric light caused by bringing into incan-
descence the tips of two carbon rods.

Art Titles — Motion picture titles with designs showing in
the lettered background of film captions.

Artificial Light — Any source of light not originated direct
from sunlight.

Automatic — Operating by virtue of self contained power.
— Arc, an arc light which readjusts itself when neces-
sary.— Camera, a camera which is driven by a spring
or other motor. — Projector, this may mean either a
motor driven or a self threading projector.

Axis, Lens — A line passing through the center of a lens
perpendicular to the surface.

B. & L. — Bausch & Lomb — Lens manufacturers.

B. & H.— Bell & Howell.

Back Focus — Distance from rear surface of a motion pic-
ture lens to the focal plane.

Back Light — The so-called Rembrandt lighting where strong
light is thrown on the actors from the back — giving a
halo of light about the figure.

Balloon — The outline around a spoken cartoon title.

Barrel Distortion — A lens defect which causes the image
of parallel lines to bulge outward.

Base — The celluloid component of motion picture film.

Bath — Any chemical solution used in treating photo ma-
terials.

Bead Screen — A screen made by covering a suitable surface
with millions of almost microscopic glass beads.

Bell & Howell — A firm manufacturing motion picture cam-
eras and accessories.

Binocular — The conventional design of two overlapping cir-
cles used to indicate the view seen through field or
opera glasses.

Biograph — An old term for motion picture — also one of the
first motion picture companies.

Black Maria — Thomas Edison's first studio.

Black Matte — Opaque mask as distinguished from a semi-
transparent one.

Brief Synopsis — The story of a scenario told in a few hun-
dred words.

Buckling — When film fails to run through camera properly
it is said to "Buckle." Usually due to intense heat.

Business — A definite bit of action. "Business of making

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 435

love" indicates that character referred to is to make
love to someone else designated in the scenario.

Camera — An instrument for recording scenes upon a ribbon
of celluloid for the production of motion pictures.

Cameralite — A portable arc light which resembles a roll
film camera when closed.

Camera Moitnt — Any kind of camera support other than a
tripod; as camera mount on table, camera mount for
automobile.

Caption — A motion picture subtitle in a film or the written
wording intended for a subtitle.

Carbons — Arc light carbons.

Cartoon — Often applied indiscriminately to any kind of ani-
mated drawing or diagram.

"Cell" — One of the sheets of celluloid used in making ani-
mated cartoons and similar work.

Celluloid — 1, film base — 2, in cartoon work any drawing on
a transparent base is a celluloid or a "cell."

Changing Bag — A light tight cloth bag with armlets in
which plates or films may be changed in the open.

Characters — The fictitious persons whose actions make the
story of a scenario or play.

Character Title Writer — A device for making titles for
motion picture film. It is also used in making closeups
of small objects, cartoon work and similar work.

Chart 1 — In elaborate trick work a graph or chart is some-
times used as a guide in matching exposures.
2 — A card with geometrical areas of black and white
for easy focussing and for testing lenses.
3 — A chart may be any table of figures for quick and
ready reference for focussing, timing exposure, mixing
solutions, printing negatives, etc.

Chemical Rays — Actinic light.

Chiaro Oscuro — Aerial perspective.

Cine — Pertaining to motion pictures.

Cine-Kodak — a 16 millimeter motion picture camera made
by Eastman Kodak Company.

Cinematographer — The person who operates a cine camera.

Cinemicrography — Cinematography of microscopic objects
by special methods.

Cinching Up — Tightening a roll of film by holding the cen-
ter and pulling on the outer end. A good way to scratch
film and make

436 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Cinophot — A pocket photometer for determining the proper
exposure for motion picture film.

Circle of Confusion — The round image of a point of light
not in focus.

Circle In — Same as iris in.

Circle Out — Same as iris out.

Claws — The metal fingers or pins which engage in the film
perforations to move it intermittently downward in the
camera, or projector.

Climax — The supreme moment in a photoplay, the culmi-
nating point to which all the action trends.

Close-Up — Anything taken by the movie camera at a dis-
tance of four or five feet or less — used alone it generally
means head and shoulders of actor but may be used as :
Close-up of face, close-up of locket, close-up of note
book. Close-ups of small articles, letters and telegrams
are also called inserts.

Color — Anything which acids to the supposed character of a
scene is "color" or "atmosphere."

Color Screen — A ray filter used before the camera lens to
get different tonal rendering of color values.

Color Filter — Same as color screen.

Composition — Arrangement of objects in a scene according
to art principles.

Compo Board — Composition board — used extensively by
amateurs for building scenery and for many other pur-
poses.

Concave — Hollowed inwards.

Condenser — A special lens used for producing a greater
illumination in projecting than would be otherwise
possible.

Continuity — The story or scenario as ready for production.
Continuity describes the business and action of the
consecutive scenes.

Continuous Action — An uninterrupted sequence of action
between characters.

Convex — Bulged out.

Contrast 1 — In prints is where the shadows are very black
and dense and the whites very transparent and chalky.
2 — Contrast is also used to indicate opposing emotions
and conditions in dramatic action — poverty emphasizes
riches, hatred contrasts love.

Crank — -Handle of manually operated cameras.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 437

Crepe Hair — Artificial hair used for building up beards,
mustaches and shaggy eyebrows.

Crisis — A critical moment in a photoplay but of less im-
portance than the climax.

Cut — Stop the action, end of the scene.

Cut In — Any close-up or insert which is interpolated into a
longer shot.

Cut Back — Where two trains of action take place simulta-
neously, the secondary action is shown in cutbacks. For
example, the girl is struggling with the villain and far
away the hero rides to the rescue. We see the girl
struggling, then the cutback to the hero riding furi-
ously, then to the girl again and so on.

Cutting — Editing film.

Cutting the Negative — Matching the master negative up
with the edited first print.

Da-Lite — An arc light made for amateur and semi-profes-
sional work.

Dallmeyer — A make of high grade cine lenses.

Dark Room — Room where film is developed. It is dark
except for dim red lights.

Daylight Screen — A screen used for the projection of mo-
tion pictures without using a darkened room. This
may be of the translucent or Translux type or a shaded
silver screen such as the Kodak 00.

Decorative Titles — Same as art titles.

Definition — The sharpness or clearness with which objects
are defined by a lens.

Density — The amount of opaque silver deposit in a photo-
graphic image.

Depth 1 — Pseudo Stereoscopic effect.

2 — The range within which objects are in focus in a
photographic print.

Descriptive Title — A title used to describe something not
shown in the action or to cover a time lapse.

Develop — Bringing up the latent photographic image.

Developer — The solution used to develop film.

DeVry — Manufacturers of motion picture cameras and pro-
jectors in both 16 mm., and 35 mm. sizes.

Diaphragm — The iris-like mechanism in a photographic
lens.

Director — The person who directs or stages a motion pic-
ture production.

438 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Discovered — A term used to show that a character is pres-
ent in a scene at the time it starts.

Dissolve — The gradual change of one scene into another,
made by over-lapping the fade-in of one scene on the
fade-out of another.

Dissolve In — Where the picture emerges gradually from the
darkened screen. "Fade in" is a better term for this.
Made by slowly opening the lens diaphragm.

Dissolve Out — Picture fades away to dark screen. "Fade
out" is a better expression. The reverse of "dissolve
in."

Doll Work — Animation using dolls and toys as actors.

Double Exposure — A composite picture made by exposing
the same film twice.

Double Printing — A composite picture made by printing
from more than one negative on the same strip of posi-
tive film.

Dream Picture — A picture of improbable nature finally ex-
plained as being a dream.

Drem — Trade name for a number of photographic acces-
sories.

Dremette— An instrument for making paper enlargements
from 16 millimeter frames.

''Dupe" — See duplicate.

Duplicate — In reversal there is no negative so when more
than one copy of a film is wanted it must be made from
the existing positive, or "duplicated."

DuPont — Name of manufacturer of 16 m/m motion picture
film.

Dyed Film — Positive film tinted with colored dye.

"Eastman" — A trade-mark of the Eastman Kodak Company
applied to photographic goods.

Edinol — A developing chemical.

Editing Film — Arranging the scenes and titles of a motion
picture into proper sequence for exhibition.

Editing Rack — Rack for holding the cut scenes in editing
film. A very necessary item.

Educational Films — A general term for almost any film not
of dramatic or comedy nature and does not necessarily
mean a film for instructional purposes. Scenic, travel
films, industrial pictures, novelty and review pictures
are all often classed as "Educational."

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 439

Effective Aperture — The concentrating of light rays by the
front lens element makes the measured diameter of a
diaphragm opening less than its mathematically calcu-
lated equivalent. In other words, a diaphragm open-
ing the effect of which is the same as the calculated
opening is called the effective aperture.

Elon — A developing agent.

Emulsion — The dull coating of film, which is sensitive to
light action:

English Weights — English and American weights and meas-
ures are not always equivalent. Consult tables for
equivalents.

Enter — A term used to designate the entrance of a character
on the scene.

Episode — A section of a serial film usually in two reels.

Ernemann — Name of a German manufacturer of motion
picture cameras and apparatus.

Ether 1 — A term for the intangible medium which pervades
the universe and which transmits light, radiant heat,
X-rays, radio waves and other vibrations.
2 — Ether is the common name of sulphuric ether, a
volatile liquid used as a solvent and anesthetic.

Exit — The departure of an actor from the scene.

Exposure — Making the impression on the emulsion by open-
ing the shutter and allowing the lens image to act on
the sensitive surface.

Exterior — A scene taken outside of a building. Usually
anything taken outside the studio, although exterior
sets are not uncommonly built in the studio. On exte-
riors means working outside the studio.

Extras — A term used to indicate the supernumeraries or
"extra" people who comprise the mobs, crowds, guests
or other persons who are incidental to the plot of a
picture.

Eye Piece — The lens element to which the eye is applied in
any telescope, microscope, binocular, focussing device
or other optical instrument.

Factor — A number used to indicate the relation of one thing
to another as regards its value for speed, time, dura-
tion or any other purpose.

Fade — Fading of the picture to blackness by gradually de-
creasing the exposure to nothing. Also called fade out.

440 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Fade In — Causing the picture to emerge from darkness by
increasing the exposure from nothing to normal.

Fade Out — See Fade.

Fake — Any artificial means for accentuating a desired effect
in pictures is called faking.

Farce — Exaggerated comedy.

Fancy Masks — Masks for framing the picture in the aper-
ture plate for decorative effect, such as heart shape,
card pip shape, arch way, silhouette, etc.

Farmer's Reducer — A reducing solution the principal ingre-
dient of which is potassium ferricyanide.

Field — The field of a lens in the angular measurement of the
view which it takes. A one inch cinematograph lens
has a field of about 21°.

Filming — Producing a picture.

Filmo — Bell & Howell automatic substandard camera. Also
applied to accessories for this camera.

Film Stock — Unexposed film, either negative or positive.

Film Slide — Single exposures made upon standard film and
projected one at a time. Replacing the old glass slide
lantern.

Filter — A colored glass does not transmit certain colors of
light, i. e., it filters light. Used to accentuate or sup-
press the tonal value of colors.

Flare — A pyrotechnic product used for exterior illumina-
tion when electricity is not available.

Flash — A very short scene.

Flashback — See Cutback.

Focal Length — The measurement from a lens to the image
when the object is at a great distance.

Focus — The point or plane in which a lens produces a sharp
image. To focus is to adjust the lens so that the image
of the principal objects are sharp and in the lens field.

Focus, Back — Back focus is the distance from the outer sur-
face of the rear lens element to the focal plane.

Fodis — A Leitz range finder made for use in amateur cine-
matography. Very small and extremely accurate.

Fog — A fog or veil on a negative or positive; generally
caused by light striking the sensitive surface from some
other source than the lens. Fog may also be due to
deteriorated materials or the action of impure or old
chemicals.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 441

Formaldehyde — A chemical used for hardening the emulsion
when softened by heat.

Foreground — That part of a picture which represents the
objects nearest the camera.

Formula 1 — A recipe for compounding a solution.

2 — A mathematical equation in which letters represent
values to be assigned according to the problem which
is to be solved.

F. System — The method of calibrating lens diaphragms in
terms of the focal length.

Frilling — Separation of the emulsion from its support at
the edges.

Fringe — The colored outline of an image produced by an
uncorrected lens.

Geneva Movement — An intermittent movement produced by
a cam and star wheel. The movement used in most
projection machines.

Ghost 1 — A ghostly apparition in pictures produced by
double exposure.

2 — Blurring produced in pictures where the shutter
does not operate in correct synchronism with the mov-
ing film.

Goerz — Name of a maker of Cine lenses, camera attach-
ments and motion picture film.

Goerz Devices — A number of amateur motion picture cam-
era accessories made by C. P. Goerz, such as the sliding
base, reflecting focussing device, outside iris, focussing
microscope, mask box, color filters, lens extension,
lenses, etc.

Goerz-Tenax Meter — A distance meter made by Zeiss-Ikon.
Small and compact but unusually accurate.

Gradation — The scale of tonal values in a picture.

Graduate — A measuring vessel for fluids.

Graduated Filter — A color filter dark yellow at one end and
clear glass at the other, used for correcting skies while
leaving foreground uncorrected.

Granularity — Coarseness in the silver grains in a photo-
graphic image.

Grease Paint — The sticks of color used by actors to prepare
their faces for screen photography.

Halation — The ghostly halo sometimes seen about the image
of a bright object in a photo.

442 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Half Tones — The intermediate shades between white and
Uack.

Halldorson — Manufacturer of amateur cine arc lights.

Halo — Same as Halation.

Hand Dissolve — A device, operated by hand, to fade in or
out.

Hardener — A solution used to harden photographic emul-
sion.

High Lights — The lightest parts of a picture.

Hood, Lens — A tube or box designed to protect the lens from
light not needed to form the image, such as strong side
lights or direct sunlight.

Humidor — A can or box fitted with an absorbent pad which
is moistened, keeping stored films in good condition.

Hurter & Driffield — A system of ascertaining the relative
speeds of photographic emulsions; named after the
inventors.

Hydroquinone — A developing chemical.

Hypo — The photographic nickname for hyposulphite of
soda (sodium thiosulphate) or its solution. It dis-
solves the sensitive silver salt from the image after
development and "fixes" it from further light changes.

Image — The picture produced by a lens.

Image, Real — An image formed by a lens or curved mirror
that can be shown on a screen.

In and Out Movement— T\vdX part of the intermittent move-
ment which moves the claws in and out of the film per-
forations.

Index of Refraction — A number which indicates the rela-
tive power of different kinds of glass to bend light rays.

Industrial Films — Films showing manufacturing processes
and production of materials.

Infra Red Rays — The invisible radiant heat of the lower
end of the spectrum.

Instructional Films — Films intended for teaching purposes ;
instructional is used in a much narrower sense than
educational.

Intensify — To increase the density and contrast of a photo-
graphic image with a chemical solution.

Interior — Any motion picture scene representing an en-
closed space, a studio scene.

Inversion — All photographic lenses invert the image of the
object in the camera.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 443

Iris — A mechanism in which the round opening may be
closed uniformly with an action similar to that of the
iris of the eye.

Kodak — A trade-mark of the Eastman Kodak Company ap-
plied to a line of its cameras, films and other photo-
graphic goods.

Kodascope — The Eastman 16 millimeter motion picture pro-
jectors.

Laboratory — A place where films are developed and finished.

Lacquer — Celluloid solutions, either colored or transparent,
with which nearly all camera parts are coated for pro-
tection and finish.

Lantern Slide — A photograph on glass for projection on a
screen.

Latent Image — The photographic image before develop-
ment.

Latitude — The range of exposure within which a photo-
graphic emulsion will produce a satisfactory picture.

Lead — The leading character in a photoplay, either male or
female.

Leader — The blank film at the beginning of a reel of film.

Leica — A very small, high quality camera making single
exposures 1 x 1% inches on standard motion picture
film. Used in making "film slides."

Lens — There are lenses of hundreds of varieties for thou-
sands of purposes but the word is used most commonly
in photography in referring to the lens which forms
the photographic image.

Lens Barrel — The metal tube in which a lens is mounted.

Lens Board — That part of the camera on which the lens is
mounted.

Lens Extension — An extension for the lens barrel enabling
objects very close to the camera to be photographed.
This gives a very large screen image.

Lens Hood — See Hood.

Lens Mount — In many motion picture cameras the lens
mount is also the focussing device.

Leoty — A type of amateur arc light.

Library Film — Films made for sale, ready for the projector,
as distinguished from the films made by an amateur
with his own camera.

Lighting — Arranging artificial lights or controlling natural
light to obtain any particular effect in a picture.

444 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Lighting, Line — See Back Light.

Little Sunny — A compact amateur arc light of high inten-
sity. A Westphalen product.

Loading — Putting film into the camera.

Locale — The locality or environment in which a sequence
takes place.

Location — Any place away from the studio used as a scene
background.

Long Shot — A scene photographed with the camera set at
a distance from the action ; a full view.

Loop — The slack portion of film above and below the inter-
mittent claws which allows them to operate without
tearing the film.

Lumiere Carpentier Movement — The same as the Pathe or
Harmonic Cam intermittent.

Machine Development — Development of motion picture film
by automatic machinery.

Magnesium Torch — A flare giving an intense white light
used for exterior at night and in caves and interiors
where electricity is not available.

Main Title — The name of the photoplay as a whole.

Make-Up — Theatrical grease paint and accessories used to
beautify or alter the features of actors. Also means
role or character as "His 'make-up' is an Indian."

Maltese Cross — The star which is part of a Geneva intermit-
tent movement.

Manuscript — The typewritten story, scenario or continuity.

Mask — A matte used next the film or front of the lens to
block out a portion of the picture.

Mask Box — A device for holding masks in front of the lens.

Meter — A measuring instrument. In motion picture pho-
tography there are several kinds: light meter, speed
meter, footage meter, exposure meter, distance meter,
etc.

Metol — A developing chemical.

Metric System — The French system of weights and meas-
ures; it is often used in compounding formulas.

Micrometer Mount — A focussing lens mount of unusual pre-
cision.

Microphot — A device for using a compound microscope in
connection with the motion picture camera for making
motion films of microscopic objects.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 445

Microscope, Focussing, 1 — An accessory, separate from the
camera, supplied by Bell & Howell for focussing the
lens of the motion picture camera by direct vision.
Lens is removed from the camera. 2 — A Goerz device
for focussing the camera lens by use of a matched lens
which occupies the position of the camera lens in tak-
ing.

Miniatures — Miniature sets are often used, generally in
conjunction with trick photography, in making scenes
that would otherwise be prohibitive on account of
expense.

Minima — An amateur arc light which may be carried in the
pocket.

Mount — The part or mechanism which holds the lens barrel.

Movement — The intermittent mechanism of a motion pic-
ture camera.

M. Q. — Abbreviation for Metol Quinol, the active ingre-
dients of the most commonly used developing solution
for motion picture film.

Negative — The photographic image produced in the camera
from which positive prints are made.

Objective — An image forming lens.

Optical — Pertaining to lenses.

Orthochromatic — Giving correct color value.

Pam or Pan — To revolve the camera to take a panoramic
view.

Panchromatic — Sensitive to all colors.

Panorama Head — The revolving device on a motion picture
tripod which permits the taking of panoramic views.

Paramidophenol — A developing agent.

Pathe — Name of a French firm which manufactures Pathex
motion cameras and films.

Pathe Movement — The harmonic cam intermittent.

Pedagogical Pictures — Pictures for school and college use
for instruction.

Perkins — A make of amateur arc light.

Persistence of Vision — That faculty of the sight which
causes an impression of light to persist for a short
interval after the light has ceased.

Perspective — That property of a picture which gives the
illusion of distance.

Persulphate — A chemical which reduces density and con-
trast at the same time.

446 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Photo Dramatist — An author who writes photoplays.

Photometer — An instrument for measuring light or ex-
posure.

Photomicrography — Photography of microscopic objects.

Photoplay — A drama in motion picture form.

Pillow Distortion — A lens fault which causes the image of
parallel lines to curve inward toward one another.

Plot — The basic foundation of a story.

Positive — A film used for projection.

Positive Stock — Unexposed sensitive film intended for print-
ing from motion picture negatives. It is slower and
more contrasty than negative film.

Principals — The principal characters of a photoplay.

Prism — A bar of glass of triangular section.

Prismatic Eye — A B. & H. device for taking films at right
angles to the apparent line of vision.

Printer — A machine for printing positives from motion pic-
ture negatives.

Probus Paint — An acid and alkali resisting paint much used
in photo laboratories for painting tanks and trays ex-
posed to the action of developing solutions.

Projector — A machine for exhibiting motion pictures on a
screen.

Props — Short for properties. In theatrical and motion pic-
ture work a property is any article used or shown in a
set. Often used to mean an imitation or fake, as prop
jewelry or prop vase because imitations often show as
well as the more expensive genuine article on the screen.

Property Plot — An itemized list of the articles and objects
needed to produce a photoplay.

Pyro — A developing agent.

Quartz Lens — A lens made of quartz. It transmits ultra
violet light to which most glass is opaque and is there-
fore very fast, but the image is soft and unsuitable for
obtaining sharp detail.

Rack — The frame on which film is wound for tank develop-
ment.

Real Image — A lens image which may be shown on a screen.

Rectilinear Lens — A lens which makes images of parallel
lines without distortion.

Reducer 1 — A solution for reducing the density of a photo-
graphic image.
2 — Principal element in a developing bath.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 447

Reflecting Focussing Device — A Goerz device enabling the
lens to be focussed and the composition arranged be-
hind the taking lens, just as in professional cameras
equipped with visual focussing devices.

Reflex Focusser — See above.

Reflector — A light reflecting surface used for illuminating
the shadow side of subjects being photographed.

Refraction — The bending of light rays by a transparent
substance.

Relief — Comedy or light action to contrast or relieve heavy
dramatic action.

Rembrandt — See Back Lighting.

Retake — A scene retaken on account of some defect at the
first filming.

Retrospect — Reverting to previous action. Such action may
or may not have been shown before. Where a character
makes a confession or tells something the scene dis-
solves back to the retrospect.

Reversal 1 — Changing an image from left to right as in a
mirror.

2 — Changing a negative to a positive or vice versa by
chemical means.

Rewind — A device for rapidly winding film from one reel
to another, used in projecting, editing and assembling
films.

Rhodol — A developing agent.

Rod and Crank — An intermittent motion obtained with a
crank and connecting rod.

Rouge — Red grease paint used in making up.

Scenario — Outline of a photoplay indicating all scenes, busi-
ness action and titles, inserts and subtitles.

Scenario Editor — A person employed by a producing com-
pany to read all manuscripts submitted and select those
suitable for production.

Scene — The action in a photoplay that is taken without stop-
ping the camera.

Scene Record — A memorandum photographed upon three or
four frames of film for the purpose of identifying the
scene.

Scenic Film — Films of scenery and travel.

Screen — The surface on which a motion picture is projected.

448 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

Script — Short for manuscript.

Sept — A camera, fully automatic, for making "Film slides."

Sequence — A connected series of incidents in a photoplay.

Sets — The painted scenery of an interior location is a set.

Shadows — The darker portions of a picture.

Shoot — Command to start turning the cine camera.

Shot — The film of a scene ; as a scenic shot, an interior shot,
etc.

Shutter — That part of a camera which opens and closes the
lens when making an exposure.

Silhouette — A scene in which only the outline of the char-
acters is seen, generally against the sky or a bright
background.

Situation — An involved relation of affairs in a drama.

Slate — See Scene Record.

Smoke Pots — A firework like a Roman candle which pro-
duces dense clouds of smoke. Used in fire scenes.

Soft Focus — An image not sharply defined yet giving a
pleasant, dreamy rendering of the subject.

Spectroscope — An instrument for analyzing light.

Spectrum — White light spread out into its component colors.

Speed — In photography speed has a number of special mean-
ings. Lens speed is determined by the amount of light
which it can utilize for image formation. Emulsion
speed refers to its relative sensibility to light. Camera
speed refers to the number of frames exposed per sec-
ond. Shutter speed to the quickness with which it can
open and close, and so on.

Spiral Reel — A developing rack which holds the film in a
spiral.

Spirit Figures — See Ghosts.

Spirit Gum — An adhesive used for attaching false hair in
making up.

Splicer — A machine for making film splices in a rapid and
accurate manner.

Split Reel — A 1000-foot reel containing more than one sub-
ject.

Split Stage — In trick work where a fraction of the set is
taken at one time and the remainder at another.

Spoken Title — Any phrase in a subtitle supposed to have
been spoken by an actor. Spoken titles should never
be shown with decorative background.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 449

Spot — Short for spotlight, a lighting unit which projects a
concentrated spot of light.

Sprocket — A toothed wheel in a camera or projector which
propels the perforated film like a sprocket chain.

Star — The actor who is featured in a stage or motion pic-
ture production.

Static — Discharges of frictional electricity which some-
times make branch-like markings on motion picture
films.

Step Printer — A machine which prints a motion picture
step by step, a "frame" at a time.

Stereoscopic — A picture that gives the same illusion of
looking into space as the two eyes perceive in actuality.

Still — An ordinary photograph — called still to distinguish
it from a motion picture.

Stinemann — A system of developing motion picture film in
portable laboratory apparatus. Also the name of the
inventor of the system. Stinemann racks, tanks and
printer.

Stock — Unexposed Film.

Stop — Lens diaphragms are called stops.

Stop Motion — Making a motion picture one frame at a time.
Used on natural objects it gives the appearance of
impossibly swift, jerky motion and is often used for
comedy effects. It is also used in animated work where
the figures which are to simulate motion are moved
slightly between each exposure.

Studio — A place where motion pictures are made.

Sun Shade — A shade to keep the sunlight from falling on
the lens of the camera.

Supers — See Extras.

Super Speed — Motion pictures taken at several times nor-
mal speed; also called slow motion because when
shown at normal speed the subject seems to move at
very slow speed.

System, F — A system of marking lens diaphragms in terms
of the focal length.

Tanks — Large containers in which films are developed in
quantity.

Tank System — Developing in a tank according to a table
calculated for time and temperature.

Tape Line — Used by motion picture cameramen to measure
the distance from lens to object so that the lens may be

450 AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING

set to the distance scale without having to focus for

sharpness. Superseded by distance meter.
Telephoto Lens — A lens which gives a large image of a dis-
tant object, while having short back focus.
Test 1 — A short piece of film developed to ascertain whether

the exposure and focus are correct.

2 — A short picture made of an actor to "test" his action

and appearance on the screen.
Test Chart— See Chart.
Treading — Placing film in a camera or projector ready to

operate.
Thin — A negative or positive in which the silver image is

thin or transparent.
Timing — Determining the printing light value necessary to

make a good positive.
Time Condensation — Reducing the action of several hours

or days into a few moments upon the screen. Similar

to animation in some ways.
Tinted Film — Film that has been printed upon a colored

celluloid base.
Titles — The printed captions in motion picture film.
Title Board — A background which supports the title letters

or cards during photography.
Title Border — A decorative border surrounding the words

of a title.
Title Card — The card upon which the title is written or

drawn.
Title Frame — A cut out decoration used with various title

cards to give a border effect.
Title Writer 1 — One who writes titles.

2 — See Character Title Writer.
Trailer — A length of blank film at the end of the motion

film.
Translux Screen — A translucent screen used for daylight

projection of motion pictures.
Trick Work — Making films showing impossible actions or

occurrences.
Triple Exposure — A film made by exposing the same film

in the camera three times.
Tripod — The three legged camera support.
Ultra Speed — See Super Speed.
Ultra Violet — The invisible rays of the upper region of the

spectrum. They act strongly on sensitive emulsions.

AMATEUR MOVIE MAKING 451

Underexposure — Not enough light has been allowed to pass

the shutter to give the proper exposure.
Verito — A Wollensak lens giving a soft definition, very good

for closeups.
Victor — A well known manufacturer of cameras, projectors

and accessories.
Vignette — A picture the details of which blend away to

nothing at the edges.
Vignetter — Outside iris.
Violet Rays — See Ultra Violet.
Vision — An effect showing the thought or dream of an actor

by means of double exposure.
Weak Negative — See Thin Negative.
Westphalen — Manufacturer of lights, reflectors and similar

equipment.
Wide Angle Lens — A lens of short focus which takes in a

wide field of view.
Wohl Lamps — Hard lights or arc lights.
Wollensak — Well known manufacturer of lenses and optical

accessories.
Wyko — A film slide projector.
Zeiss — A manufacturer of cameras, lenses and optical

devices.

INDEX

(Figures in italic refer to illustrations)

Aberration

chromatic 131

-curved field 131
-linear 131
-spherical 131

Abnormal camera speed 426
Accelerator 286
Accent lighting 109
Actinic light 40
Acting

facial expression 385

the hands 385

Action

completed 389

unfinished 393

-of light 129
-off screen 386

Aluminum Screen 241
Amateur

Cinema League 3-350

film development 285

makeup 377

Movie Maker 169

production 304

Amidol 286

Analytic films 328

Anastigmat lens 132

Angle

camera 389-399

-composition 308

lens 135

shutter 23

Animal subjects 335-339
Animated cartoons 195

titles 175

Animation 195

Arc lights 96-110-112-114-118-

121-124-127-358
Archery 326
Art titles 165
Artificial light 94
Atmosphere 303-385
Atmospheric perspective 379
Avoirdupois to metric 423

Backlighting 88-106

Baseball 326

Basketball 326

Bead screen 242

Bell & Howell

camera 23-29-30-67-74-172-

195-200-202
color filter for projector 252-

294
exposure meter 43

-focussing microscope 64-00

-iris 155

-Panorama tripod for 68

-projector 260-261

-title writer 172-186-195

Bird subjects 339
Bleaching bath 276
Blind, working from 338
Blue toning 297
Break Shots 215-313
Brilliancy
— of lenses 138

-of screen image 296

Bromine, 270

Camera

accessories 36-320

angle 52-63-389-399

as a tool 303

care of 78-318

452

-Cine Kodak 23-20-27-2P-67-

74-128-312-313-331
-DeVry 23-33-35-67-74-200-202
-Filmo 23-29-30-67-74-172-

195-200-202
-interior of 21
-Leica 402-403
-manipulation 190-383
-miniature still 403
-motion picture 22
-Pathex 23-24
-remote control 338

INDEX

453

Camera (Cont.) :

reverse 192

speed 71

tilt 54

Victor 21-23-31-32-65-67-74-

110-147-156-173-200-202
Cameralite 358-110
Cartoons, animated 195
Cast, amateur 352
Cement, film 228
Chaney, Lon 309
Character makeup 378
Character Title Writer 1 72-186-

195
Chromatic aberration 131
Chronological order 214
Cine Kodak 23-26-27-29-67-74-

128-312-313-331
Cinema Clubs 3-349-355
Cinematography

abroad 320

art of 303

from hip level 321

from moving support 202

with prisms 322

Cinemicrography 343
Cinophot, 45-48-65-108
Circle of confusion 56-57
Closeup 59-108-218-398
Coincidence, illusion of 391
Color

Colorator 252-293

costume 376

filters 90-149-i5i-251-283-408

photographic 150

projector 251

use of 408

values 151

Colorator 252-293
Complementary masks 206
Composition 64-308
Condensor

adjusting 239

cleaning 239

projection 238

Conjugate foci 58-415
Continuity 356
Contrast developer 428
Controlled shots 314
Conversion tables 422

rapid metric 424

-thermometric 425

Cooke lenses 158
Coordination of motion 330
Copies upon M. P. film 292
Copyright 188
Costume

color of 376

• historical 375

Costume (Cont.) :

material 376

period 375

Curvature of field 131
Curves 308
Cutbacks 356
Cutting

film 213

first 232

rack 220-230

table 219

titles 219-231

Daguerre 273-280
Daguerreotype 272
Dallmeyer lenses 158
Depth of Focus 60-140-415
Development 271-284-420
equipment for 287

—formulae 428

home 285

process of 288

racks 289

reduction 286

tanks 288

Developers

contrast 429

formulae 428

M. Q. 428

reversal 429

Number Sixteen 428

title 429

universal negative 429

universal positive 429

DeVry

camera 23-33-35-67-74-200-

202
projector 65-230-249-250-262-

263
screen 243

Diaphragm stops 40
Direct focus 146
Direct titles 167
Dimensions of subject 379
Directing

closeups 398

completed action 389

-crossing lead 391
-dramatic suspense 390
-entrances and exits 386
-illusion of coincidence 391
-inserts 398
-laws of 384
-length of scene 397
-looking at camera 395
-off screen action 386
-off screen vision 390

454

INDEX

Directing (Cone; :

position for 383

"punch" 392

rules of 383

tempo 392

unfinished action 393

Direction

of film travel 190

of motion 308

Disc films 18

Distance meters 60-65-146-61
Distance of subject 419
Dissolves 208

lap 210

round closing 210

Distortion, linear 131
Double exposure 135

without masks 202

with masks 206

Double toning 299

Drama 352

Dramatic production 349

suspense 368

technique 354

Drem meters 45-48
Dremette 11-186
Duplicate films 282
Dusenbery, Syril 42-169

Eastman 16-20
Edison, Thos. 16
Editing 213-220

illusion in 215

library 215

purpose of 213

rack 220

Exposure meters 40-90

calculator 40

Cinophot 45-108

Drem 45-48

extinction 44

-sequence 216
-tempo 216

Effect set 31-65-110-147-155-156-

173-201
Elements of trick work 191
Emulsions 270-282
Enlarging from M. P. film 11
Entrance 386
Evil eye 321
Exits 386
Exploration 333
Exposure 39-285

at abnormal speed 425

and development 420

factors 40

interior 108

making the 334

slow motion 78

sympathetic 90

title 170

-Filmo 43

Harvey 41

Milner 42

Rexo 42

Watkins 43

Exterior

lighting 80-81

subjects 314

Extinction meters 44

Facial expression 385
Fade 209

printer 292

Family films 357

Fencing 326

Field of lens 55-134-143-334

Film

age of 282

amber 252-283

area exposed 190

blue 252

brilliancy of 282

care of 239

cement 228

-classification 313

-cleaning 255

-clips 255-289

-developing 284

-disc 18

-duplicate 282

-editing 213

-family 357

-footage 370

-green 252

-home developing of 285

-inspection 251-255

-labelling 235

-latitude 282

-library 215

-light amber 252-283

-master 283

-non-ribbon 17

-panchromatic 150-283-341

-paper 19

-physical form 270

-pink 252

-polishing 233

-red 252

-sensitivity 40

-speed of travel 190-200

-storing 233

-tinted 251

INDEX

455

Film (Co7it.) :

tinting and toning 293

travel direction 190

vacation 372

yellow 252

Filmplates 187
Filmslides 401-404.

camera for 403

Leica 403

projector 403

Filmo

camera 23-29-30-67-74-200-

202-172-1.95

-color filter 252-2.94
-exposure meter 43

focussing microscope 64-00

panorama head 68

projector 260-261

title writer 172-195

Filters 90-149

factors 408

graduated 151

projection 251

red 283

use of 153-408

Fishing 326-332

Fixation 272-429

Flares 90-337

Flashback 219

Focal length of lens 55-134-143-334

Focus

conjugate 58-416

— depth of 60
-direct 146

Focussing 55

microscope 64-05-150-205

projector 240

visual 62

Fodis range finder 60-61

Fog 287

Football 326

"Foot and frame" count 204

Formulae

development 428

projection 408

toning 297-430

Furniture 351

Goerz (Cont.) :

lenses 157

Tenax distance meter 157

Golf 326
Gold screen 241
Goodwin, Rev. H. 16
Griswold film splicer 225

Halogens 270
Hand lettered titles 167
Hands in acting 385
Harvey exposure meter 41
Historical costume 348
History of cinematography 15
Home development 285
Home films 314-357
Humidor, film 233
Hunting 326-331
Hydroquinone 286
Hyperfocal distance 56-414

Illumination 94
Illusion

of motion 14

in edition 215

Image

formation 130-132

photographic 271

Incandescent light 96
Inches to millimeters 422
Insect photography 201-291-342
Inserts 218-398
Instructional films 327-328
Intensification 429
Intensity of light 40-97-271
Interior

exposure 108

lighting 94-380-110

subjects 110-314

Intermittent action 237
Iris

in 210-217

out 210-217

-outside 37-05-154-210-211

Iron toning 297

Gelatin 286

Glossary 432

Goerz

C. P. 148

effects (See reflecting focus-
sing device; mask box; focus-
sing microscope; sliding
base) 37-64-05-110-147-155-
150-173-174-201-208

Jenkins, C. Francis 2
Joining film 230

Kodak

Cine 23-26-27-29-61-14-128-

312-331

456

INDEX

Kodak (Cont.) :

rewind £5-223

splicer 223

Kodascope "A" 256

model "B" 258

model "C" 257

Laboratory work 285
Landscape work 324-401
Lap dissolve 208
Latitude of film 282
Laws of direction 384
Leica camera 65-402
Lens 128

aberrations 131

anastigmat 132

angle 135

brilliancy 138

circle of confusion 56

classification 137

conjugate foci 58-415

Cooke 158

Dallmeyer 158

depth of focus 140-413

diaphragm 40

extension 38-201-342

field of 339-342-410-411

fixed focus 59

focal length of 55-135-143-

334

Goerz 65-147-157

hyperfocal distance 56-114

image formation 130-132

long focus 145

Meyer 140-159

normal 142

rapid 142

rapid rectilinear 131

residual aberration 139

Schneider 159

speed of 91-133

telephoto 144-147-321

ultrarapid 93-138-141-320

universal focus 55

Wollensak 157

Xenon 141

Zeiss 158

Library films 215
Light 129

actinic power 40

action of 39-86

arc 96-112-114-118-127

back 106-107

balancing 85

chemical effect of 270

color of 81

Light {Cont.) :
direction of

fall 80-84-101-

102-129

-effect upon haloids 271
-front 100-106
-hazy 83-89
-high 105-106
-incandescent 96
-intensity of 40-97-271
-low 104-105
-manipulation of 99
-path of 80-129
-plain 100-106
-poor 89-323
-primary 103
-pure 84
-quality of 82
-reflection of 80-87
-side 103-104
-source of 94
-spot 109
-synthesis of 99
-trickery 89
-ultra violet 34

Light, arc

amperage 98-117

Cameralite 110-116-127

Da-Lite 125

double range 121

Gelb 122

Halldorson 123

intensitv of 98-112

Little Sunny 110-119-127

Minima 118-127

Perkins 125

pocket 118-127

to extinguish 127

Wohl Duplex 123

— Wohlite 123

-versus daylight 113

Lighting

accent 109

artificial 94

balanced 85

emotional effect of 109

equipment 94-116-125-351

exterior 80

flat 82

for sport work 334

harsh 82

interior 94-380

sympathetic 83-212

the set 378

time — space — intensity 97

trick 89

Linear distortion 131
Linear perspective 379
Location 373
Long focus lenses 145

INDEX

457

Machine splicing 224
Magnesium flares 40-337
Makeup 376

amateur 377

character 378

colors 378

crepe hair 378

reason for 376

straight 377

Manipulation 315
Marine work 341
Mi ask

box 31-64,-65-110-147-155-156-

1 73-174-201-208
double exposure 155-206

-effect 147-155

Material for costume 376

Meters

exposure 40-90

-distance 60-146

Metol 286
Metric system 422
Metric to avoirdupois 424
Microphot 344
Microscopic work 344
Millimeters to inches 423
Milner light gauge 42
Miniature still cameras 401
Miniature subjects 201
Miraculous effects 191
Mirror 88-212

parabolic 238

-projector 238

-to clean 238

Modelling 103-379
Monotone filter 55-86
Motion

dictionary of 308

direction of 308

Motion picture

cameras 22

first 16

M. P. P. & D. 303
Multiple exposure 203
Muybridge, Edward 16

N. G. 68

Natural history 335
Nature study 335-336-337
Negative 268-280

developer 428

positive process 272

Night effects 91
Nocturnal animals 335
Non-ribbon films 17

Off screen action 386
Off screen vision 390
Optical accessories 211

Pam 68

Panchromatic film 150-281-341

Panorama 68

rapid 68

scenic 323

Paper films 19

Particles, playing the 273

Patching (see splicing)

Pathescope 20

Pathex

camera 22

projector 264

superreel 266

Pathexgraph 171
Period costume 348
Permission to photograph 320
Persistence of vision 14
Personal films 357
Perspective

atmospheric 379

illusion of 379

linear 379

Photo Era 3
Photographic image 271
Photoplays, amateur 348
Planned shots 314
Plot development 368
Point of view 384
Polishing film 233
Polo 326
Positive

developer 428

negative process 280

processes 268

Preservative 286
Printing 268-272-280-290

double 292

fades 292

tests 291

trick 291

Prism 129-212-322
Projection 235

broken connection 245

broken film 245

burned out lamp 245

changing focus 247

-faults 245

-focal length of lens 244

-formulae 408

-lens 239

-lighting room 253

458

INDEX

Projection (Cont.) :

loss of loop 247

motor fails 246

music with 253

"rain" 246

shutter stop 245

screen sizes 245

torn perforations 246

travel ghost 240-246

with color screens 251

Projector

clean lenses 247

-condensor 238
-DeVry 65-220-249-250-262-
263

-Filmo 260-201
-filmslide 402
-focussing 240
-framing 239
-intermittent 237
-Kodascope 256-257-258
-lacing 239-248
-lamp 238
-Leica 403
-lens 239
-light source 237
-mechanism of 237
-mirror 238
-Pathex 264
-shutter 240
-Superreel 266
-threading 239-248
-Victor 260

Production 311

Racing 76

Rack

cutting 230

developing 289

Stinemann 288-28$

Range finder 37-60-334

Rapid rectilinear lens 131

Record films 314-316-326

Red toning 297

Reduction

chemical 271

physical 429

Reels, film 248

self threading 248

Reflection 80-87

Reflectors 80-87-374

Westphalen 87-108-110

Reflecting focussing device 30-38-
62-65-110-147-148-156-173-
184-201-205-211-291-343

Rehearsal 382

Rembrandt lighting 106

Remote control for camera 338
Residual aberration 139
Restrainer 287
Reversal process 268-272-274

bleaching 276

over exposure 279

Pathe 430

solutions 428

Rewinds 221-255

Rexo meter 42

Round closing dissolve 210

Scenario 161-356-361-364

climax 369

construction 367-370

detail 369

— development 359
-suspense in 368

Scene length of 397

Scene record 372

Scenic subjects 323

Scientific subjects 335-345-346

Schneider lenses 159

Screen 235-240

ACH 243

aluminum 241

automatic 243

bead 242

brilliancy 296

color of 236-241

DeVry 240-243

gold 241

image brilliancy 241

portable 243

protection 243

Prisma 65

silver 236-241

size 241-416

support 243

white 242

Sensitivity of film 40
Sepia toning 297
Sequence 216-367
Sets 375

17.5 millimeter film 19
Shadows 89

luminous 103

Shooting 326
Shutter

angle 23

projector 240

Silver

bromide 270

grain 271-273

screen 241

Sliding base 62-64-65-110-147-
156-173-174-205-211

INDEX

459

Slow motion 31-73-75-199

analytic 328

critical 328

exposure 78

instructional 328

lens speed 73

nature study 340

sports 328

Snakes 340
Snapshooting 312
Spectres 203
Spectrum 149
Speed

abnormal 74

camera 71

rapid 73

slow 72-75

Spherical aberration 131
Spirograph 18

Splicer, film 222-223-225-227
Splicing film 224

hand 229

Sports 77 -3 17-326-329
Steeplechase 332
"Stills" 402-405
Stinemann 269-2S7-288-290-294
Stop camera 191
Stop motion 194
Studio, amateur 350
Submarine subjects 341
Substandard sizes 426
Sulphide toning 297
Surgery 346
Suspense 368-390
Sympathetic lighting 83-112
Synthesis of light 99

Table-top cinematography 197
Tanks, developing 220-28$
Telephoto lenses 144-321
Tempo 216-217-392
Tennis 320
Tests, printing 291
Thermometric tables 424
Threading projector 239-248
Time condensation 198-343
Time — space — intensity 97
Tinting 251-293-296
Titles 166

animated 175

backgrounds 165-169

border 168

classification 160

composition of 163

cutout 168

Titles (Cont.) :

developer for 428

direct W-167

equipment for writing 167

exposure for 170

field 155-171-174

film plate 187

finis 189

for scenic films 185

footage 163

Goerz 173-174:

gummed letter 167

hand lettered 167

Kodak 170

lighting 170

made-to-order 170

motif 162-168

photography of 170

relative aperture 174

spoken 219-232

styles of letter 165

tapestrv 169

use of 160

wall paper 169

writer, Filmo 172

Tonal quality 101-281
Toning 293-297

double 299

formulae 298-431

iron 297

red 297

sepia 298

suitable 299

sulphide 297

uranium 297

Trick work 190

animation 195

cartoons 195

doll work 197

-double exposure 202
-without masks 203
-double printing 291
-elements of 191
-miraculous effects 191
-reverse 192
-slow motion 199
-spectres 203
-stop camera 191
-stop motion 194
-thrillers 193
-titles 175

-time condensation 198
-use of 190

-cutting in 219-231
-decoration i£i-165-168

Tripod 36-52-69

ACH 70

folding 70

heads 52

home portrait stand 69

in nature work 337

460

INDEX

Tripod (Cont.) :

metal 70

Omnia 70

tilt 54

Triax 37-53-70

Truball 70

walking stick 70

Tropical work 324

28 m/m film 19

Two film process 268-272

Ultra-rapid lenses 93-138-320
Ultra violet light 34
Unity 111
Universal focus 55
Uranium toning 297-299

Victor 2-20-67

camera 23-31-32-05-67-74-

110-1^7-156-173-200-202

projector 260

Vision

off screen 390

— — persistence of 14
Visualization 356

Walk 388-394
Watkins meter 43
Westphalen 87-108-374
Wheel of life 15
Winton, Roy W. 3-12
Wollensak lenses 157

Vacation subjects 373

Zeiss lenses 158

The Ideal Cine*Club Camera

PROFESSIONAL £J*ES
AMATEUR

in simplicity
and in price!

The INSTITUTE STANDARD

MOTION PICTURE CAMERA

Experience has shown
that successful amateur
film production is
made much easier by the use
of a standard camera and
reduced prints.

The Institute Standard
camera uses standard 35 mm.,
film in 200 or 400-foot
magazines. It may be used
to duplicate any professional
screen effect, yet it can be
purchased, equipped with a
2", f 3.5 anastigmat lens,
ready for work, for the low
price of

$15(\

FULLY EQUIPPED STUDIO MODEL

It may be equipped with
trick crank, four lens turret,
automatic dissolving shutter,
inside masks, effect set, extra lenses and other professional
accessories at a slight extra cost.

The "I.S." camera may be operated forward or in reverse.
It may be used for trick work, lap dissolves, animation, double
exposure, fades and other effects which will

GIVE YOUR FILMS THAT PROFESSIONAL STYLE

The "I.S." camera weighs only 16j^ pounds, it is easily
portable, and unusually efficient.

It looks like a real studio camera.

It makes film like a real studio camera.
IT IS A REAL STUDIO CAMERA

For full details write to

NEW YORK INSTITUTE OF PHOTOGRAPHY

14 West 33rd Street Dept. 16 New York, N. Y.

Students Working in Our Motion Picture Studio

Learn

MOTION PICTURE
PHOTOGRAPHY

— in your own home
or in our studios

LET the world's foremost school of Photography teach
you to make motion pictures which will rival in
quality the finest theatrical screen productions.

While we give instruction in all branches of Profes-
sional Photography (Motion Picture, Portraiture, News
and Commercial) we will give YOU special, individual
training in motion picture photography for amateur pur-
poses. Amateur Cinema Clubs should arrange for their
Cameraman and Director, at least, to take advantage of
this opportunity.

Travel, sports, scientific research, dramatic production,
family record, trick work, animated cartoons — no matter
what your specialty may be, we can help you to real

One of Our Modern Portrait Studios

success. You will be trained by experts who have had
extensive experience in both professional and amateur
work.

Every graduate has at his disposal our unique service
department which will give him life-long assistance with
technical problems.

Complete studio equipment of the latest type is at the
disposal of students taking the Personal Attendance
Course. Home Study Courses give you the same
thorough, practical instruction under the supervision of
our expert Faculty Staff.

Write for Free Booklet

A postcard or letter will bring you a handsome and
informative booklet, profusely illustrated in rich gravure,
explaining our courses in detail.

This booklet also explains the many opportunities open
to photographers working either part or full time with
their cameras. It explains how you may make a pro-
fession of the photographic work which you like best.

Send for the booklet now. There is no obligation.

New York Institute of Photography

10 West 33rd Street Dept. 16 New York, N. Y.

Use Bell &Howell Accessories

to give your movies professional results

The amateur movie accessories offered by Bell & Howell are
designed and selected through twenty-one years of experience
with professional productions. Through these devices you will
make your own movies nearest like those you see in best theatres.

Interchangeable Lenses

Fourteen lenses, from the ultra fast F1.5 to the
6-inch F 4.5 telephoto, shown here, are inter-
changeable in Filmo camera. Write for complete
descriptions and prices.

Combination Rewind and Splicer

With this handy accessory you examine film, cut,
insert titles and make a splice that is velvet
smooth. For 16 mm. film, price complete, $14.00.

Character Title Writer

A miniature movie stage for filming cartoons,
signatures, titles and pictures from magazines.
Camera clamps in place back of powerful lamps.
Price complete with case, $45.00.

Color Screen Attachment

For use on Filmo Projector. Provides blue, green,
amber and pink disks to give movies color tints.
Requires no tools to attach. Price, $6.00.

Halldorson Lamps

Exactly suited to requirements of movies indoors.
Lamp shown is Cinema Mazda with 1000 watt
lamp. Mounted for use on chair or table, price
$31.00. With tripod, $37.50. Cinema arc lamp
with self-containing case, and tripod, $65.00.
Write for details.

OTHER INDISPENSABLE ACCESSORIES INCLUDE

Speed lenses
Telephoto lenses
Silver screens
Bead screens
Title board

Iris vignetter
Color niters
Tripods
Carrying cases
Accessory cases

Projection lenses
Film storage cases
Exposure meters
Filmo library
B &H rental library

Write for complete accessory catalog

BELL &. HOWELL CO.

1820 Larchmont Ave. Chicago, 111.

Neu> York Hollywood London

Established 1907

The finest home movies are made with

BELL & HOWELL EQUIPMENT

Bell & Howell professional equipment has
been the standard in the production of theatre
movies for twenty-one years. The same high
quality of movie photography and projection
is guaranteed you by Bell & Howell Filmo
equipment for the amateur.

The Bell & Howell Filmo Camera is aston-
ishingly simple in operation, yet takes movies
that are mirror-like reproductions of living
scenes. Adaptable to all conditions of light,
speed and distance.

Filmo Projector is likewise adaptable to
every requirement of showing home or busi-
ness movies. Projects absolutely flickerless
pictures. Runs backward, forward, or stops on
single frame. Has fast automatic rewind.

Eyemo Camera, using standard (35 mm.) film
is a beautiful instrument for professional or semi-
professional movie making. Write for our new
booklet, "Home Movies of the Better Kind," in
which all the above are fully described.

"What you see,
you get"
Simply look through
spy-glass viewfinder
and press the button to
take movies with Filmo

BELL & HOWELL CO.

1820 Larchmont Ave., Chicago, Illinois

New York Hollywood London

Established 1907

EYEMO

is the camera used for
making news reels and
special shots in profes-
sional productions

__'

PHOTO

Near Range Finder

"INSTAFOCU"

(Instant Focus)

Movie Cameras

Features of
"lnstafocu": W

1. Correct Distance in-
stantly; abolishes time-

consuming and unre- ag i

liable tape-measure.

2. Equally Important for
Amateur and Profes-
sional.

3. For "Close-Ups" assurance of ^jSI i^, Mjm
minute sharpness. (Face-Expres- >» lltfjr
sions never distorted.) ^^MPi

4. The tape fails for "Shots" from platforms and balconies — "In-
stafocu" never fails.

5. "Instafocu" determines the "Hyper-Focal" Point easily and
unerringly.

6. "Instafocu" does away with an Assistant for measuring dis-
tances with tape.

Rangefinder "Instafocu" is constructed on the coincidence prin-
ciple, known as the most reliable method of correct range finding. A
second or two establishes the coincidence and the accurate distance
is read off the dial.

The "Instafocu" determines distances within a fraction of the
focal depth of any lens — therefore unfailing reliability.

Price $17.50

Order through your dealer, or write us direct!

E. LEITZ, Inc.

60 EAST TENTH STREET NEW YORK, N. Y.

Agents for: California, Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, Montana, Nevada and Arizona,
Spindler 8C Sauppe, Offices at San Francisco and Los Angeles, Calif.

Ten Reasons Why —

1. No focusing

2. No tripod

3. Two finders

4. Small in size

5. Light in weight

6. Spring motor driven

7. Integral winding arm

8. Exposure guide on camera

9. Daylight loading

10. Conveniently shaped

—Anybody can make good Movies
with Cine-Kodak j Model B

Simplicity — that's the keynote of motion pictures
the Cine-Kodak way. Merely sight the subject and
press the release. It's just as easy to make good
motion pictures with the Cine-Kodak as it is to
make snapshots with a "still" camera.

And Kodascope projects your
movies just as easily and sim-
ply as Cine-Kodak makes them.
Just plug it in on your house
lighting circuit and snap the
switch. That's all — the movie
you have made is before you on
your screen.

At your dealer's

EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY

ROCHESTER, N. Y., The Kodak City

CARL ZEISS TESSAR

and Tele-Tessar lenses can be fitted without

adjustment to the most popular movie

cameras. They are furnished with a

special finder, giving a correct view

for both the Tessar f 2.7 and

the Tele-Tessar f 6.3 of

12 cm., focal length.

CARL ZEISS, INC.

485 Fifth Avenue, New York
Pacific Coast Branch: 728 South Hill Street, Los Angeles, Calif.

Experts and Beginners

ACCLAIM the Accomplishments

of the

Victor
Cine-
Camera

QUICK adjustment of speeds, half-normal, normal and high
speed for SLOW-motion; absolute steadiness and sharp-
ness of pictures at all speeds; convenient location and ac-
curacy of the view-finder; smooth "velvety" action of the
control button; full start and dead stop without jar; sim-
plicity of threading film; quiet vibrationless mechanism;
silent light-running crank wind; hand crank feature; perfect
SLOW-MOTION — all are features emphasized in the en-
thusiastic comments of users.

The Victor Cine-Camera marks the beginning of a new
era in amateur motion-picture photography.

Price $125 Complete

With F/3.5 Veiostigmat lens

(Uses Cine-Kodak and other i6m/m Daylight loading film)

Ask your dealer or write direct for further information

VICTOR ANIMATOGRAPH CO., Inc.

DAVENPORT, IOWA, U. S. A.

Hayden Accessories for Movies in the Home

Set of Twelve
Editing Reels

Reel Holders
Filmo Projector

Not to Run Through
Projector

Send for Free Booklet on These
and Other Accessories

A. C. HAYDEN CO

Brockton, Mass., U. S. A.

Make Movies IN YOUR HOME

WITH

CAMERALITE

Safe!

May be safely op-
erated from ANY
ordinary house
socket.

Powerful!

Uses only 10
amperes of current
yet delivers 10,000
candlepower of in-
tense, actinic light.

The CAMERALITE is the only arc lamp for amateur use which has
kept pace with modern amateur camera development.

For full information address

M. J. WOHL 8C CO., Inc.

40th Avenue and 10th Street Long Island City, N. Y.

Speed! Speed!! Speed!!!
WOLLENSAK CINE VEL0STIGMAT

1.44 times faster than / 1.8
1.60 «f " " / 1.9

2.77 " " " / 2.5

1" Focus #50.00
2" Focus #75.00

5.44

/ 3.5

Extra Illumination for Movie Making

Cloudy, dull days and poorly lighted interiors are no longer barriers to cor-
rectly timed movie films. Just attach one of these high speed corrected anastig-
mats to your Filmo or Victor Camera and you are prepared to make movies under
all lighting conditions.

Our other movie apparatus includes

Telephoto Lenses Cine Velostigmat / 3.5

Portrait attachments

Vignetters Color filters

Let us tell you more about them.

WOLLENSAK OPTICAL COMPANY

692 Hudson Avenue Rochester, New York

Manufacturers of Photographic Lenses and Shutters since 1899

PATHEGRAMS

The Pick of the Great Film Stars of the

lJathe Exchange, Inc.

For Sale, Rent or Exchange

LISTS FREE

DeVry Movie Cameras enable amateurs
to take professional quality pictures.

DeVRY CORPORATION

Dept. AMB, 1111 Center Street, Chicago

THE NEW YEAR

Brings the

New DeVry 16mm. Projector

A master product at a new low

price, $95.00

And the cleverest self-supporting
screen ever designed

Quick-Set
Screen

PULL IT UP
AND IT SETS
ITSELF IN-
STANTLY f K

& I

The FASTEST lens in the World

Formula of Dr. Rudolph

"Pictures taken
do look

Our / 1.5 is furnished in micrometer
focussing mounts instantly adaptable
to Filmo, Eyemo, Victor, DeVry, etc.
Focal lengths 20 millimeter to 3\/2
inches.

At your dealer, or write to

HUGO MEYER & CO.

105 West 40th St.

New York City

Works: Gorlitz, Germany

Developed by Dr. Rudolph,
creator of the first anastig-
mat lens — Superbly cor-
rected, it gives to your
picture fine modelling —
plasticity — great DEPTH
(so noticeable in all of the
PLASMAT series)— re-
markable in so speedy a
lens.

with a ffiasmat
different"

It Is easier to MEASURE
tHan I

Correct expo-
sure for any
lens or camera

Simple!
Rapid!
Accurate!

DREM AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE METERS

INDICATE INSTANTLY THE SCIENTIFICALLY CORRECT EXPOSURE

THE CINOPHOT

For professional and general motion
picture work. Indicates instantly the
correct lens aperture for normal cam-
era speeds. Scales for slow and high
speeds. Reads to f 1.4.1/1000 to 30
seconds.

THE DREMOPHOT

For 16 m/m motion picture work.
Direct reading from f 1.8 to f 45. For
camera speeds from 8 to 128 exposures
per second, reading is easily secured
by simple scale adjustment. For all
16 m/m cameras.

Either meter complete with instruction booklet and sole leather case $12.50.
"I use the Drem Exposure Meters exclusively and have found them
to be uniformly reliable and unusually accurate." — Herbert C. McKay.

DREM PRODUCTS CORPORATION

151 WEST 42nd STREET

NEW YORK, N. Y.

HEADQUARTERS

for
Cameras

and
Accessories

Amateur Movie Making

Not only do we carry in stock the better known movie cameras
and supplies for the use of the amateur but through the em-
ployment of experts we simplify the problems confronting him —
a helpful and instructive service which is 100% efficient.

KLCOCJQHBy

WiLLuaQHByr*
HO West 32 nd St. ■■*

OPPOSITE GIMBEL'S

New York, N.Y.

Drop a line to Bass • • •

Bass has prepared for amateurs and professionals, a com-
plete catalog of motion picture apparatus describing the
famous Bell 8C Howell Automatic Motion Picture Cameras
both 16 mm., and 35 mm.

Accessories to gladden the heart of the amateur and pro-
fessional. And information obtainable through no other
source.
Sending for this catalog entails no obligation, so do it now.

Bass Camera Company

179 W. Madison St. Chicago, 111.

The Tioneer ^Art Title ^Builder

and

Film Editor of ^America

PRESENTS
TWO UNUSUAL FEATURES

SEND three dollars with any
portrait and I will make
an exact reproduction ready to
splice into your reel. The por-
trait will be returned in as per-
fect condition as when received.

Have ALL your loved ones
in that family reel.

SEND me only two dollars
with copy for three titles,
not longer than ten words each.
In return I will send you three
of the finest art titles made.

See illustrations of ENO'S
ART TITLES on pages 161-
164-166 of this volume.

Genuine

Hand
Lettering

ENO'S ART TITLES

Phone

Wisconsin

4020

are known the world over as

QUALITY LENSES

For the various amateur movie cameras we supply the same high-
grade lenses in short focal length as we furnish them to the foremost
professional cinematographers for their standard cameras.

We also make a number of attachments and accessories for use with
Filmo, Eyemo, Victor, DeVry and other 16 mm and 35 mm cameras,
all designed by our experts to make it possible for the serious amateur
to produce movies equal to those of the best professional cinematog-
raphers.

// you equip yourself with Goerz Lenses
and Devices you can do better work.

Write for literature and advice to

C. P. GOERZ AMERICAN OPTICAL CO.

317 East 34th Street New York

WORTH WHILE ACCESSORIES FOR THE
MOVIE-MAKER

Jos. Schneider & Co. XENON f 2. lens. A new lens in which
high speed is obtained without sacrifice of definition and correc-
tion. In the new adjustable focusing mount which insures a
perfect fitting on every Filmo and Victor camera. $3 7.50.

TRIAX TRIPODS open automatically in 3 seconds. Of Dur-
aluminum, U shaped legs give remarkable strength and rigidity.
Accept no substitutes. $5 to $7.50.

RAMSTEIN GRADUATED SKY FILTERS. The only optically
perfect filter of this type on the market. Send for filter circular
C. and learn what your pictures lack.

TRIAX PANORAM AND TILTING TRIPOD TOP of professional
quality. Panorams without jerks, tilts smoothly and locks
firmly. $7.50.

Write for complete catalogue of photographic goods and
arrange with your dealer for free trial of any article.

BURLEIGH BROOKS 136 Liberty St., N. Y.

U. S. Agent for Schneider lenses, Kawee, Glunz Heidescope and Lindhof
cameras, Triax accessories, Ramstein filters and other photo goods.

Introducing

Little Sunny

THE biggest light value
ever offered you: an 8 amp.
110 volt AC-DC arc lamp
that can be used on any home or
store circuit. The aluminum
reflector and wooden handle
fold back for compactness. Tilts
to anv angle and when folded is
only 7 x 5 x 2^ inches; smaller
than a 16 mm camera.

He's yours for only $15 complete
with 15 feet of extension cord
and 6 double length carbons.
Weight 50 oz. Folding, nickel
plated 6-foot stand $2.50 extra.
Extra carbons 75c. a dozen, $4.50
a hundred.

For movies we recommend using
two lamps and Little Sunny's
friend Reflector to lighten up
the shadows. Reflector is 36 x
58 inches and when folded is
2 x 2 x 18 inches and sells for
$5.00 complete with 6-foot fold-
ing stand.

// you don't like Little Sunny
or his friend Reflector you can
return them witliin 10 days
and we'll cheerfully refund
your money.

Leonard Westphalen

438 Rush Street Chicago

Meeting an
International Need

The Amateur Cinema League

AND

The Amateur Cinematographer's
Magazine

Are Considered INDIS-
PENSABLE by Thousands
of Amateurs in Every
Civilized Country of the
Globe.

You, Too, SHOULD

JOIN THE LEAGUE

and

READ

Amateur Movie Makers

FULL INFORMATION CON-
CERNING THE LEAGUE AND
COMPLIMENTARY COPY OF
Amateur Movie Makers SENT ON
REQUEST.

Amateur Cinema League, Inc.

A Non - Commercial

Amateur Organization

105 W. 40th Street, New York, N. Y.

THESE BOOKS

Will Give You
Professional Technique

WRITTEN by well known
authorities, these books
offer you expert instruction in
Motion Picture and Still
Photography and kindred sub-
jects. Handsomely bound in
rich maroon, profusely illus-
trated.

Motion Picture Photography (1927 Edition) #6.00

By Carl L. Gregory, F.R.P.S.

Motion Picture Photography for the Amateur 2.50

By Herbert C. McKay, A.R.P.S.

Handbook of Motion Picture Photography 3.00

By Herbert C. McKay, A.R.P.S.

Screen Acting 3.00

By Inez and Helen Klumph

Photoplay Writing 3.00

By William Lord Wright

Motion Picture Directing. 3.00

By Peter Milne

Motion Picture Projection 5.00

By T. O'Conor Sloane, Ph.D., LL.D.

Photography for the Amateur 3.50

By George W. French

Principles of Pictorial Photography 3.50

By John Wallace Gillies

(These books have been adopted as supplementary text books at the
New York Institute of Photography)

At Your Photographic Dealer's or Direct from the Publishers

FALK PUBLISHING COMPANY

10 West 33rd Street Dept. 16 New York, N. Y.

IKHflKsR

mit,

ffism

''"■■■■ :'

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Amateur movie making"

See other formats